Causes and Prevention of Food Safety Hazards

Causes and Prevention of Food Safety Hazards Chapter by chapter list Rundown This task characterizes the idea of sanitation risks as opposed to physical dangers of food. What are physical dangers? How they can be forestalled? What's more, how they can be identified and dispensed with is characterized in this undertaking. Risks of food Food risks are the physical, concoction and organic specialists in the food or the state of food with the likelihood to hurt when eaten or to cause an unfavorable wellbeing impact. Food perils can be named natural risks, for example, microorganisms, compound dangers, for example, pesticides, synthetic, cleaning operators or allergens and physical dangers are those risks which shouldn't, nor prone to be in the food like wood, glass, bones coarseness or residue. Substance perils These perils are brought about by following ways By normally happening harmful synthetics, for example, by poison plants like rhubarb leaves and mushrooms or toxic creatures like puffer fish, form poisons or algal sprouts, and so on. Synthetics which are included water. Synthetics utilized in agribusiness, for example, pesticides, anti-infection agents, plunges and overwhelming metals. Toxic sicknesses spread by creatures or plants. Synthetics like added substances or cleaners which are included during food handling. A few people have unfavorably susceptible responses from specific nourishments like milk and its items, peanuts, shellfish or gluten contained grains. These kind of dangers can be constrained by buying food stuffs from an affirmed provider, shielding the food from sullying, keep up safe cleaning techniques or applying normalize methodologies to forestall cross defilement of food. (College, 2014) Biochemical risks These risks are conceived in the food itself and cause the most food borne ailment. They can happen by different sources. These microorganisms are usually called as germs and are just be seen under a magnifying lens. Fundamentally not all the microorganisms are unsafe but rather microorganisms like pathogens are hurtful in food when they reach to a significant level. Some of them are: Infections like flu or hepatitis A. Microorganisms like salmonella, bacillus cereus, and staphylococcus aureus. Molds Protozoa like Guardia Yeast The term food contamination is brought about by these pathogens that are developing in food brings about sickness. These microorganisms increase to an irresistible level which will in general make an individual sick when food is kept in wet or warm conditions. Because of persistent development of these microorganisms to perilous powers, for the most part microscopic organisms, food contamination tend to arise.to maintain a strategic distance from these food borne sickness, food handlers must know the states of food contamination microbes and their attributes. (College, 2014) Physical Hazards A physical danger is any remote item accidently gets into the food and makes injury or sickness the individual eating food. Physical dangers incorporates remote articles like bone or bone chips, bits of item bundling, creepy crawlies, wood, metal, stones, glass, individual things and so on. Contaminants from sources incorporates crude materials, inappropriate upkeep of hardware and offices, ill-advised creation strategies and poor worker rehearses. A physical peril can enter a food item at any phase of creation. It contains sharp and hard articles that can make a potential danger an individual who is eating. Physical peril can make injury an individual, for example, it can slices to the mouth or neck, can harm the digestive tract can likewise harm to the gums and teeth Some regular physical dangers Glass: regular sources from glass compartments or glass food holders, or found in food preparing office are lights or cylinders. Metal: Sources of metal incorporates metal from hardware, for example, cutting edges, broken needles, staples, and parts from utensils. Plastics: bundling material utilized, gloves worn by food dealing with individuals, cleaning hardware, pieces of plastic devices. Stones: crop fields, got stones by specific vegetables during collecting. Worn solid structures in food preparing businesses. Wood: wellsprings of wood originates from normally like wood structures and wooden beds utilized in transportation of food or food items. Grouping of physical dangers Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CIFA) characterizes the physical perils into three classes relying upon their chance and harshness of their response: Classification I (high probability) Classification II (moderate probability) Classification III (okay) The association furthermore rates the likelihood of occasion subordinate upon the degree of control that a food processor need to slaughter the hazard: Generally safe: Great control measures made sure about, anyway minor infractions occur. Medium Hazard: Some control measures made, yet fissure of course irregularities occur. High Risk: Practically zero control constructed. Each food has its own potential dangers or perils and assessment of these aides in deciding the hazard class for likely physical risk, Preventive measures for regular physical perils Examine fundamental materials and food parts for field contaminants (ex: stones in oats) that were not found throughout the underlying beginning procedure. Follow average putting away practices and survey potential risks away zones (ex: wellsprings of fragile glass, for instance, lights, staples from compartments, etc.) and utilize guarded acrylic bulbs or light covers. Create subtleties and controls for all components and parts, including rough materials and packaging materials. Subtleties or particulars should hold checks for surveying ampleness of fixings or bundling materials (ex: reused cardboard used for packaging on occasion holds traces of metals that could be recognized by metal indicators. A breaking point for metal ID built up to be made sure about to avoid bogus positive discovery of metal in food items). Set up a practicable discovery and expulsion framework for physical dangers in the office (ex: metal locators or magnets to recognize metal areas in the arrangement line, stations or screens to clear remote things. The exhausted hardware must be appropriately or normally kept up to keep away from physical perils. Representative preparing must happen time to time on delivery, putting away, taking care of and accepting hardware to keep physical dangers from being into the food. Purify and clean instruments and utensils or gear after each utilization. Purify cutting edges of can openers after use to ensure that metal shavings don't store. Utilize just suitable ice scoops when getting ice from an ice machine. Recognition and end of physical risks Metal indicators will assist with distinguishing any metal substance in food item. They should set up in food creation line to dismiss items in which metal is recognized. Legitimate upkeep ought to be done to this gear to guarantee they are working in an exact way. Magnets can be utilized alongside metal finders on food sequential construction systems to dispose of metal from items. X-Ray machines can be utilized on food to distinguish dangers, for example, bones, stones, metals and furthermore hard plastics. Food radar technique transmit low-power microwaves through food stuffs to perceive outside constituents , for instance, metals, plastics, bones, bits and normal materials in food on handling line. Fundamental Materials of Concern as Physical Hazards and CommonSources (College, 2014) End Sanitation dangers are of three sorts, predominantly substance, organic and physical perils. In which, Physical dangers are those outside materials that shouldn't go into food items, for instance: stones, wood, metal, plastic and so on. Physical perils can cause a lot of extreme hazard as they can harm, cuts and can make genuine mischief one’s wellbeing. They can be forestalled by methods for strategies, for example, legitimate consideration in food preparing enterprises in taking care of food, appropriate upkeep of gear and utensils, sterilization of various utensils and hardware or hardware utilized in food handling. Physical risks can be identified and killed by methods for present day indicators, for example, Metal locators, X-beam machine, magnets and so forth. Rundown of references College, C. 2014. HSC Online Implement sanitation strategies. [online] Available at: http://hsc.csu.edu.au/cordiality/hosp_240/food_bev/SITXFSA001A/4124/hazards.htm [Accessed: 7 Mar 2014].

Common problems for college students free essay sample

The accompanying tips are for understudies to assist themselves with staying away from a portion of the negative effects of these issues. While these issues are surely not thorough, numerous understudies will be influenced by various them during their school understanding. Diminishing sentiments of achiness to visit the family might be hard for a few however might be cultivated by staying nearby during the week and on ends of the week. This may assist understudies with getting to know their grounds and become progressively associated with athletic and get-togethers. Understudies get familiar with grounds assets and warm up to different understudies, with whom they may discover shared belief. Keep in contact with those back home through telephone, mail and email yet constrain yourself to turn out to be a piece of the way of life inside your new scholarly world. Eating right and remaining solid will assist you with achieving your scholastic objectives and make your school experience substantially more fun. Get enough exercise and screen the sum and nature of your food and drink utilization. This will build the chances of staying truly and intellectually sound. Poor rest propensities will leave you incapable in your work and play as an understudy. Take this test and read a present report identified with the requirement for rest and the impacts of lack of sleep on our wellbeing, both our physical and psychological wellness. Uncertain relationship issues usually cause harshness, disdain and outrage. Any of these emotions can make us free focal point of the objectives we are endeavoring to accomplish. Regardless of whether we should move, isolated or even only â€Å"agree to disagree,† effective endeavors at social compromise are essential in every one of our lives. While the impulse to skip classes might be high now and again, you are going through your cash to assemble data given during class times. At the point when you are not there, you are not getting the advantage of the guidance just as data with respect to reviewing, future assignments, and openings outside the homeroom of which you might need to exploit. You may likewise be neglecting to invest energy with teachers and colleagues who may, upon graduation, become some portion of an important system for you. This brings us into issue six. At the point when we don't become more acquainted with and invest energy with cohorts, educators and other scholarly counselors, we need support and a spot to go for thoughts and answers when an issue arises. Reasonable experience and temporary job openings ought to consistently be exploited, so as to give greatest systems administration chances to understudies. Comprehend what your assets are and build up a fitting spending plan. Look for the exhortation of a money related organizer or instructor. Don’t go through cash superfluously or acquire cash that might be troublesome or even difficult to reimburse. Just the central government can do that. Be cautious about being brought into charge card openings offered to understudies. â€Å"Easy cash† is rarely simple and may likewise accompany high loan costs. Confronting impressively more opportunity than the secondary school years, combined with an absence of responsibility it turns out to be anything but difficult to miss the mark regarding finishing the vital perusing and concentrating to build your chances of scholarly accomplishment in school. Inability to devote the proper time to considering and perusing is probably going to negatively affect grades. A few plans to expand your chances of achievement are to be in class, each class if conceivable, be responsible to others for you scholastic execution, know each course, the prospectuses, the necessities and the teacher alongside his/her desires. While school is a social just as a scholastic encounter, these must be adjusted so as to expand achievement in the two zones. Stalling may have been an adequate exercise in secondary school yet will probably get dangerous in school. While becoming more acquainted with different understudies/staff, build up cutoff times for assignments that limit your feeling of anxiety. In as much as school is when numerous individuals feel overpowered with the prerequisites of life, don’t let this continue for long. Consider seeing an expert guide to enable you to arrange, organize and better deal with the requests being set upon you. Each understudy needs their experience to be important, however in the correct way. Secondary school understudies imagine their school years will be loaded with fun, new social experiences, new encounters, and affectionate recollections. In any case, there are additionally numerous issues understudies face during their time there, and how they manage them is fundamental in their scholastic, passionate, physical, and social achievement. Here are some normal issues and some potential answers for working through them. Accounts One of the significant difficulties undergrads face is that of funds. Numerous understudies drop out preceding graduation since they can't manage the cost of the expense. Some have help from guardians, others have monetary guide, yet at the same time with the increasing expense of educational cost, course books, food and lodging, gas, apparel, and different necessities, the test is regularly a troublesome one to survive. Arranging is a basic piece of dealing with the cost of school. Sound cash the executives abilities are required, and being innovative and dependable with regards to setting aside cash is basic. Purchasing utilized reading material, discovering exchange methods for transportation (bike, strolling, and carpooling), eating out less, and managing without certain extravagances can mean the thing that matters is moving your way through school liberated from obligation or dropping out. Studies College as a rule requires more concentrating than secondary school alongside more assignments. It is anything but difficult to turn out to be immediately overpowered and fall behind. For those attempting to go to class and work part or full time, the investigation issue is regularly an incredible obstacle to survive. Dont try too hard, particularly in your first semesters at school. It is ideal to find a steady speed and acclimate to grounds and scholarly life at school. Cautiously consider the quantity of credit hours you are embraced just as their degree of trouble. It may be a smart thought to shuffle classes so your timetable isn't stacked with all the hardest subjects in a solitary semester. Your counsel can be an important asset in helping guide you in your selection of subjects. Time, Energy and Competitiveness - Side by side the test of financing school instruction is the need to oversee time and vitality and remaining serious as an understudy. Numerous understudies, particularly first year recruits, have issues on the most proficient method to isolate their time and vitality to the different school and individual undertakings they have to do. A couple of will discover adapting to scholarly battles troublesome. Indeed, even non-rookies can experience the issue every so often. School considers is exceptionally serious. You must be capable in your field of control since you are getting ready to turn into an expert in your picked profession. To take care of the issue of time the board and scholastic deficiency, you need to ace dealing with your time and create study propensities. Understudies Today Here are five of the most well-known issues confronting undergrads today and answers for defeat these issues. As a previous educator at a little junior college in Indiana, I am constantly dumbfounded at the quantity of understudies who start the semester with so much excitement and desire, yet out of nowhere lose that energy to succeed scholastically just inside half a month into the semester. After some time, I have perceived five of the most widely recognized issues confronting undergrads today and offer methodologies that could help bring understudies back on course. 1) The Problem: Lack of inspiration. As indicated by The National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education, probably the greatest snag that keeps understudies from getting an advanced education is an absence of inspiration. The most widely recognized error I have seen understudies make is playing hooky. Certainly, it’s enticing to avoid that exhausting English class on aâ warm, bright Tuesday evening in October, however playing hooky is normally never without outcomes. Understudies who make a propensity for playing hooky frequently pass up addresses that furnish them with critical data for up and coming tests and assignments. Not exclusively could this outcome in a general less than stellar score for the class, yet you are swindling yourself out of information that can help you in your forthcoming profession. The Solution: Consider the awards of your training to help kick off your inspiration. Did you know there is a great deal more to gaining a professional education than simply the budgetary advantages? Indeed, as indicated by College Board, an advanced degree can prompt a more beneficial way of life, with decreased medicinal services costs for people and society. Likewise, kids with school taught guardians are bound to be more ready for school than other youngsters. School is likewise an outlet for making deep rooted associations with your teachers and enduring companionships with individual understudies. 2) The Problem: Lack of note-taking aptitudes. Understudies may go to each class address, however this exertion might be futile if their note-taking aptitudes are poor. I have watched a few understudies enduring whole talks without recording anything. Different understudies have grumbled they can't take notes on the grounds that the teacher talks too rapidly or gives a lot of data on the double. Without realizing how to take adequate notes during addresses, this can prompt deplorable outcomes on assignments and tests. The Solution: Practice. Compelling note-taking will improve colossally through a lot of training. One accommodating activity you can attempt is a counterfeit talk. Have a companion or study accomplice read resoundingly sections from your course book while you work on taking notes. Work on writing in short-hand instead of in complete sentences. On the off chance that you attempt to compose everything simultaneously, this can make you fall behind and pass up other significant data in the talk. Make certain to reconsider your notes flawlessly and in complete sentences following the talk while the material is still new in your mind. 3) The Problem: Failure to p

Colleges Meeting 90% and More of Financial Need

HomeFinanceFinancial aidColleges Meeting 90% and More of Financial NeedThis page may contain affiliate links.Nov 11, 2019Listed below are colleges that meet 90% and more of a familys demonstrated financial need. This list was based solely on using publicly available Common Data Set information that schools publish on their websites. Its not surprising that many selective colleges are included in this list, as many of these schools promise to meet 100% of need. In addition, there are schools that are generous with need-based aid and are not as highly selective in their admissions process. In particular, 41 schools on the list meet 90% or more of need and also have admissions rates of 40% or more. In addition to looking at the percent of need met and the average need-based aid, data on graduation rates, % admitted, total price (in-state prices listed for public schools), and average net price by income range are provided. You can sort the data by any column. Its important to consider graduation rates, since each additional potential year of college adds significantly to the cost of a college education. Keep in mind that even though a college may meet a high percentage of a familys need, it is the college that also determines what a familys need is. Some schools use FAFSA to determine need, but 75% of the schools on this list ask families to fill out the CSS Profile. The CSS Profile asks for additional information about a familys financial situation. Schools use this information, along with their own calculations, to determine how much a family can contribute towards college. This amount may vary from your EFC. Our data is based on the latest IPEDs data and publicly available Common Data Set files that colleges publish on their websites. Data on percent of financial need met comes from information in a colleges Common Data Set. Not all colleges make this information public, so our college list may not be completely inclusive of all the appropriate schools. Colleges Meeting 90% and More of Financial Need NameState Abbr4 yr Grad Rate5 yr Grad Rate% Ad- mittedAvg % of Need MetAvg Need Based AwardTotal Price (16-17)Avg Net Price For Income $48,001-$75,000Avg Net Price For Income $75,001-$110,000Avg Net Price For Income over $110,000 University of PikevilleKY152610090$18,081$37,700$20,476$20,483$20,153 Hendrix CollegeAR64697790$34,350$58,120$19,313$24,535$27,815 University of North FloridaFL26476590$6,515$21,210$13,535$16,173$19,244 Knox CollegeIL69756590$31,323$54,515$20,635$23,832$29,758 University of Massachusetts-LowellMA32526190$9,853$29,002$16,465$19,120$23,804 Whitman CollegeWA83875190$32,417$61,972$21,821$28,061$43,539 Gettysburg CollegePA84864390$35,068$64,500$17,683$26,782$35,937 George Washington UniversityDC76824090$32,167$67,225$26,883$29,667$44,178 American UniversityDC76802690$30,045$62,272$26,394$31,693$46,282 Dalton State CollegeGA51590$3,500$15,206$11,250$9,388$10,645 Oral Roberts UniversityOK47556891$17,314$39,760$20,853$22,269$25,267 Allegheny CollegePA70756891$36,480$58,920$21,123$25,862$30,943 DePauw UniversityIN78836591$38,681$60,888$18,006$22,112$30,797 Sewanee-The University of the SouthTN79824491$28,705$57,450$20,042$21,154$35,101 Bucknell UniversityPA84883091$29,200$67,600$24,514$29,983$46,785 Ithaca CollegeNY66747092$28,655$59,918$30,696$33,703$40,717 Luther CollegeIA72786892$30,804$52,595$22,099$25,051$28,416 Gustavus Adolphus CollegeMN78796592$32,990$54,280$15,979$25,476$27,946 Westminster CollegeMO56636592$18,575$38,650$19,507$20,122$22,512 San Jose State UniversityCA11445392$12,461$27,039$15,681$18,809$22,068 Vaughn College of Aeronautics and TechnologyNY265392$11,354$45,405$32,205$25,315$32,956 Albion CollegeMI61707293$40,241$54,150$15,786$24,740$27,298 Clark UniversityMA71755593$27,747$53,350$20,467$20,750$32,680 Fort Valley State UniversityGA8202693$6,510$20,044$16,582$18,681$16,916 Valparaiso UniversityIN54648394$28,968$51,190$19,566$22,324$25,873 Earlham CollegeIN65695894$38,564$57,870$21,256$21,635$32,756 Rhodes CollegeTN76795494$31,593$59,754$24,675$24,824$31,385 Beloit CollegeWI64717095$32,586$57,506$9,213$24,994$19,701 Wheaton CollegeMA76796795$32,620$63,512$27,031$26,835$36,365 Hampshire CollegeMA51636495$38,891$65,212$22,643$31,158$44,324 Brandeis UniversityMA83873395$40,150$68,125$26,730$26,514$48,839 Southwestern Oklahoma State UniversityOK17299196$1,491$19,518$12,225$13,827$15,308 SUNY College at PotsdamNY35497296$9,812$23,394$17,231$18,351$20,818 Kalamazoo CollegeMI73806696$34,678$57,116$17,916$24,806$31,198 Lawrence UniversityWI64786396$36,619$56,823$21,074$24,545$32,056 Walla Walla UniversityWA24466296$5,605$38,133$22,037$23,966$26,322 Southwestern UniversityTX66714596$30,013$52,650$19,789$25,045$29,335 University of MiamiFL70803896$32,486$64,306$23,046$34,005$37,351 Lehigh UniversityPA77882696$41,234$63,075$18,432$28,417$45,419 Valdosta State UniversityGA16326597$6,862$20,403$16,820$16,828$17,450 Wabash CollegeIN64716397$34,044$53,150$16,151$25,171$30,573 Trinity UniversityTX68764197$30,334$54,714$15,470$25,211$31,747 Northeastern State UniversityOK9219498$7,417$16,833$10,389$11,872$12,283 Berea CollegeKY48613398$31,803$35,042$6,805$5,351$34,980 Tulane University of LouisianaLA72822698$32,702$67,114$27,623$31,907$41,845 University of FloridaFL67844699$7,711$21,251$8,732$11,381$16,950 St Olaf CollegeMN85884599$32,991$56,160$15,816$23,307$34,295 Dickinson CollegePA81844399$40,052$66,779$17,286$27,738$41,768 University of DaytonOH597460100$28,208$56,370$25,546$32,471$32,428 Mount Holyoke CollegeMA788352100$37,011$61,206$17,552$25,012$34,710 Occidental CollegeCA768146100$41,801$69,442$17,877$28,448$44,977 Bryn Mawr CollegePA788240100$41,321$66,160$17,319$26,616$41,012 College of the Holy CrossMA899238100$36,511$64,065$17,426$28,718$44,629 Macalester CollegeMN848737100$42,208$64,007$17,423$24,111$38,132 Union CollegeNY818737100$36,393$66,360$20,847$27,861$41,037 Smith CollegeMA868837100$43,839$66,647$17,814$25,227$41,073 Franklin and Marshall CollegePA838636100$44,761$67,880$16,408$28,337$45,393 Connecticut CollegeCT818435100$39,698$67,000$23,651$26,844$42,811 Trinity CollegeCT808434100$44,394$68,940$14,032$23,584$43,062 University of RichmondVA848832100$40,204$63,040$14,515$24,851$40,438 Reed CollegeOR667631100$37,665$67,250$17,437$22,565$39,301 University of Virginia-Main CampusVA889330100$21,517$31,186$14,374$21,964$27,814 Scripps CollegeCA808430100$35,730$68,464$22,738$25,661$42,350 Wake Forest UniversityNC848730100$42,637$66,512$13,521$29,042$44,330 Northeastern UniversityMA08329100$34,803$65,503$17,573$31,239$40,453 Wellesley CollegeMA838929100$48,433$65,966$12,581$22,141$42,274 Colgate UniversityNY858929100$48,355$67,290$17,589$19,989$42,628 Skidmore CollegeNY858829100$41,900$67,000$15,261$21,866$47,352 Oberlin CollegeOH718428100$37,998$68,670$24,134$24,241$42,076 Lafayette CollegePA858828100$44,113$66,105$21,404$26,343$46,329 University of North Carolina at Chapel HillNC849027100$17,240$24,898$12,074$18,954$23,197 Vassar CollegeNY879027100$46,243$67,740$12,188$18,427$36,810 Kenyon CollegeOH899027100$43,736$66,670$15,911$23,146$41,962 Hamilton CollegeNY899126100$43,936$65,750$9,788$20,882$40,022 Washington and Lee UniversityVA888924100$40,072$63,500$8,962$17,605$34,627 Carleton CollegeMN889123100$42,019$66,490$14,682$22,941$38,398 Bates CollegeME848723100$44,063$66,550$12,108$21,523$38,977 Haverford CollegePA869021100$46,398$69,387$12,110$25,956$42,279 Grinnell CollegeIA818420100$41,090$63,838$17,563$22,792$35,726 Davidson CollegeNC919520100$43,859$64,698$11,982$17,498$39,244 Colby CollegeME848919100$43,762$65,824$17,088$24,111$37,890 University of Notre DameIN909519100$39,044$67,043$14,893$23,099$40,922 Williams CollegeMA869318100$50,286$68,430$10,448$16,899$42,003 Wesleyan UniversityCT879118100$47,653$67,527$11,996$25,474$42,819 Barnard CollegeNY829017100$46,876$68,512$16,092$22,360$41,048 Washington University in St LouisMO889317100$43,839$69,754$13,208$28,458$44,102 Georgetown UniversityDC909417100$41,492$69,313$15,540$23,967$48,345 University of Southern CaliforniaCA779017100$36,995$69,711$21,751$32,515$51,147 Middlebury CollegeVT859216100$47,092$66,332$13,966$17,448$38,052 Colorado CollegeCO828616100$47,140$66,400$4,349$22,688$44,605 Bowdoin CollegeME899415100$42,165$65,590$11,057$19,367$34,142 Rice UniversityTX839115100$37,253$60,518$10,080$22,683$38,701 Pitzer CollegeCA838714100$42,956$68,192$14,904$22,781$41,949 Amherst CollegeMA869214100$52,482$68,986$13,268$20,406$43,142 Cornell UniversityNY879314100$40,333$67,613$15,456$26,486$46,258 Tufts UniversityMA879114100$42,971$68,190$18,872$24,260$47,538 Swarthmore CollegePA889313100$46,897$66,549$12,638$23,368$37,004 Harvey Mudd CollegeCA859113100$41,649$71,917$25,102$18,643$42,967 Vanderbilt UniversityTN879111100$48,559$64,654$8,451$14,835$32,921 Northwestern UniversityIL849211100$42,976$70,496$12,763$28,038$40,222 Dartmouth CollegeNH889511100$51,461$69,474$10,048$19,568$44,204 Duke UniversityNC869311100$46,370$69,169$7,880$25,085$48,925 University of PennsylvaniaPA85939100$45,711$69,340$12,322$19,870$37,370 Pomona CollegeCA92979100$50,686$67,357$6,975$13,363$37,440 Claremont McKenna CollegeCA86929100$49,208$69,385$18,096$20,675$43,992 Brown UniversityRI84949100$43,186$68,106$12,697$22,282$44,695 Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyMA84918100$42,351$65,478$8,633$17,992$42,237 California Institute of TechnologyCA81898100$44,074$66,774$6,781$20,077$42,977 Princeton UniversityNJ89967100$49,870$63,690$4,557$16,967$32,706 Yale UniversityCT86966100$52,831$68,950$6,551$16,229$36,367 Stanford UniversityCA75895100$47,664$66,696$4,061$18,212$39,853 Harvard UniversityMA86965100$47,053$66,900$6,577$21,958$44,238 Due to lack of consistent sources, the data in this chart is from multiple years. IPEDS data (graduation rate, total price, and average net price) is from 16-17. Common Data Set information (% of need met, average need aid) is from the most recent year of public available data. The information is based on freshmen amounts. Average net price is based on information for families that have filed FAFSA and may not be as representative of average net price for families with incomes greater than $110k if a large percent of higher income families have not filed FAFSA.

Essay on Martin Luther and The German Peasant Revolt of 1525

â€Å"Under the outward appearance of the gospel, they honor and serve the devil, thus deserving death in body and soul ten times over.† Luther’s brutal words against the rebelling peasants of Germany in 1525 reveal the complex reality of the Reformation. Suppression of the rebellion by the German aristocracy was swift and violent, leaving over 70,000 German peasants dead. The rebellion targeted the social and political oppression of the peasantry in the early 16th century. The peasants found new justification for revolt in the promising words of Martin Luther. Luther proclaimed a new kind of freedom for the Christian soul and the peasants applied his idea to their own circumstances. However a dichotomy emerged between spiritual freedom†¦show more content†¦He stressed how salvation by faith freed the soul but not the flesh. Instead, temporal power was separate from spiritual power: â€Å"This is not to say every Christian is placed over all things to hav e and control them by physical power†¦such power belongs to kings, princes and other men on earth.† Even early on, Luther made a clear definition of Christian freedom and its limits. While The Freedom of a Christian focused on the spiritual tenets of Lutheranism, in 1523 Luther clarified the role of temporal power in Concerning Governmental Authority wherein temporal power and spiritual power existed together, explaining that â€Å"Both must be permitted to remain; the one to produce righteousness, the other to bring external peace and prevent evil deeds.† Again Luther emphasized the separate spheres of the temporal and spiritual power. One of his many criticisms of the Catholic Church had been its attempt to control both spheres. These two works illustrate Luther had a conservative idea of social and political order. Then, leading up to the 1525 revolt, there were political and economic stresses affecting the peasantry. The 16th century was a dynamic period for Europe as the population increased by 50% from 1480 to 1548. This rapid increase in population had a twofold effect. As a larger population strained resources inflation went upShow MoreRelatedMartin Luther And His Influence On Peasant Results951 Words   |  4 PagesDecember 11, 2015 Martin Luther and His Influence on Peasant Results Martin Luther was one of the most influential people in Christian history, when he began the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century. He questioned some of the basic beliefs and principles of the Roman Catholic church and his followers split from the Roman Catholic to begin the protestant tradition. Martin Luther spent a few years at the monastery and finally became an Augustinian monk. Martin Luther gained religious enlightenmentRead MoreMartin Luther And The Catholic Way Of Thinking868 Words   |  4 PagesLutheranism was started by the ex-catholic priest Martin Luther in his attempt to revolutionize the catholic way of thinking. Martin Luther whose lifespan was from 1483 to 1546 studied in the University of Wittenberg where he studied greatly under the laws of sola fide, sola gratia, and sola scriptura which meant by faith alone, by grace alone, by scripture alone. During that time he often question the way Catholics would handle their ways of teaching one example was that the only way to get intoRead MoreLutheranism and Its Impact on Germanic Peasants1396 Words   |  6 PagesThe Rise of Lutheranism and its Impact on Germanic Peasants The rise of a new religion is often met with both praise and malice from the hierarchy of the civilization it springs from. The rise of Lutheranism affected all of Western Europe, but it’s most prominent impact was on the peasants and serfs with no where to turn in what is today Germany. As the growth of Lutheranism picked up speed at the beginning of the sixteenth century, peasants from all over the Germanic states turned to LutheranismRead MoreLuther and the Peasants Revolt1529 Words   |  7 Pagesthe affect of suppressing peasants. Through dictating proper beliefs and a sort of uniform, elite culture that a good Christian should strive to fulfill, peasant culture was increasingly marginalized, deemed inferior to the ruling nobility and even subsequently disregarded in modern hindsight; this perceived inferiority contributed to the nobility’s exploitation of peasants. As the paramount representative of the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther appealed to peasants t hrough his repudiation ofRead MoreLuther s Address For The Christian Nobility Of The German Nation931 Words   |  4 PagesLuther’s Address: Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation (1520) Using the Ninety-Five Theses, Martin Luther almost single handedly lead the reformation of the Protestants in 1520. Although his father was strict, Luther followed his own path by questioning the limits of the church. Because of this, the church shunned Luther and punished him accordingly. Luther spent most of his time studying writings by Augustine which he used these ideas to influence the way Christianity is practicedRead MoreLuther And The Christian Nobility Of The German Nation1396 Words   |  6 PagesIn Martin Luther’s To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, Luther writes to the German princes on the three walls that the Catholic Church uses to defend themselves from reform. Luther attacks all three walls for the power it gives to the Pope. His attack of the second wall, that only the pope can interpret scripture, is a tenant of Luther’s theology. The Lutheran belief of Sola Scriptura holds that only Scripture should be the source of all Christian practi ces, rather than doctrines declaredRead MoreAdolf Hitler And Martin Luther Of Germany2117 Words   |  9 Pagesbother trying? If so, how? Adolf Hitler of Germany: Martin Luther of Germany: Argument: No it is impossible. Argument: Yes it is possible. Today we have two great and influential people debating an incredibly controversial topic. Adolf Hitler and Martin Luther are both German citizens during a time of conflict, however that is where the similarities end. Luther, who was born in 1483 lived in a very different world from Hither. To Luther, the conflict was focused primarily around religion andRead MoreThe Death Of Martin Luther1013 Words   |  5 Pages Martin Luther was born in Germany on November 10th, 1483. He was the son of Hans and Margarette Luther. In 1501 Martin entered the University of Erurt where he received a master of arts degree. He got a degree in grammar, logic, rhetoric and metaphysics which seemed as if he was becoming a lawyer. In 1505, Luther went through some life changing experiences which led him on a new course. He got caught in a storm where he plead out to St. Anne, Save me, St. Anne, and I have become a monkRead MoreTo what extent was martin Luther responsible for the protestant reformation in Germany?1990 Words   |  8 PagesTo what extent was Martin Luther responsible for the revolutionary Protestant reformation in Germany? In this essay, I will attempt to assess the extent of Martin Luthers role in the Protestant reformation that took place at the beginning of the sixteenth century in Germany. Luthers name is synonymous with the religious Reformation of the sixteenth century, or the evangelical movement as it is sometimes called, but the actual details of the Reformation itself are somewhat lesser known. LuthersRead MoreA Letter Of Protest By Martin Luther1503 Words   |  7 PagesIt all started with one man: Martin Luther, who out of anger, sent a letter of protest directed against the concept of indulgences among the Catholic Church. As with many events in history, all it took was one outspoken man to incite the feelings of thousands of others. These feelings about questioning the church had been building since the previous century, as the spirit of intellectual inquiry was one of the chief legacies of the Renaissance. The 16th Century became known as the Protestant Reformation

Organizational Culture Business Practices - 1011 Words

Does Organisational Culture Shape Ethical Business Practices? U5009333 Sarah Zuiderduin 14/10/2014 Introduction Organisation culture can be described as the beliefs, customs, value systems and behavioural norms and ways of doing business that are unique to each corporation. The impact of organisational culture on the ethical standards and moral practices of people in organisations has become increasingly common (Fisse Braithwaite, 1983). Managers within organisations are now turning to organisational culture to not only to explain what happens in organisations, but also to attempt to shape what happens in the organisation (Sinclair, 1993). Body Definition of organisational culture, ethical business†¦show more content†¦Management can and should actively manage and engage in organisational culture. This process requires clear identification and articulation of a corporate strategy, philosophy or mission. These strategies are not confined to economic goals, but there does need to be a cohesive statement about what kind of organisation the company will be; including its character, espoused values, and relationships to customers, employees, communities, and shareholders (Murphy, 1989). Commonly known as a ‘credo’ (Murphy, 1989), this strategy can be translated into a corporate code of ethics. The credo can be a general statement about the organisational values, the code of ethics should be specific, pertinent, publicized, communicated and enforced, as well as revised (Laczniak Murphy, 1991). Apple Inc. utilises it’s employees levels of innovation, creativity, and provides further training and development programs to ensure a positive, supporting, engaging and empowering organisational culture and attributes this environment to its success. Leadership and its positive influences, linked to above statements about Apple Inc. Identify and describe positive outcomes of organisational culture and its positive influence on ethical business practices. Identify the extent of the influence? The strong cultural approach adopts a more instrumental

Visual Arts Paper Example For Students

Visual Arts Paper It is discovered that dead ends and empty spaces throughout the museum are used to create an eerie atmosphere. The deliberately sloped floors are intended to make visitors nauseate, while the orientation of the interior physically bringing visitors to sunlight, which is symbolic of the direction to salvation. These structural features contribute to the exploration of light, In the museum, light is used to juxtapose darkness in Holocaust Tower, the confined area reminds one f a gas chamber. In installation art Fallen Leaves, the combination of sound and light suggests a spiritual presence, haunting visitors with memories afar. Throughout the museum are scar-like slits and windows, which gradually shifts the overall atmosphere of the museum from disturbance to relief. Light carries historical significance in the Jewish Museum Berlin because it allows readers to relive history, connecting emotionally with the past. It is a hopeful structure that aims not to condemn, but to remember by recording and ultimately accepting horrors of history. Word count: 300 words Chug Mary Yet Fan (0637 0020) Contents Introduction p. 4-5 Daniel Libertines and the Jewish Museum Berlin p. -7 Jewish Museum Berlin as a scared architecture p. 8-10 Structure of the Jewish Museum Berlin p. 11-14 Dead ends Linen floors and winding stairs The Void Natural light in the Jewish Museum Berlin p. 15-18 Holocaust tower Windows and slits of light Fallen Leaves by Menaces Sideman Conclusion p. 19-20 Bibliography p. 21 -22 Appendix p. 23 The 2009 Prettier laureate, Peter Azimuth differentiates architecture trot art as such, it is concerned with insights and understanding, and above all with Ruth Architectures artistic task is to give this still expectancy a tort (Azimuth 19). My passion in architecture comes from the fact that it is realistic, No matter how vantage the design, it always withholds a specific purpose and meaning for society at the time, giving a solid form for what is deemed abstract in the arts: the truth. In the Jewish Museum Berlin, the truth is presented in the form of light Light has long been a fundamental element of architecture, especially in contemporary architecture where light becomes a means of communication that inflicts complex emotions beyond words. Via understanding the importance of light in architecture, we come to have a better understanding of the world we live in. M intrigued by the ideas that each building holds, the truth, and how they are presented. This paper explores how effective is the use of natural light in instilling historical significance into the atmosphere Of an interior space. This depends on the treatment of light, whether it contrasts or compliments the exploration of central ideas. In the Jewish Museum Berlin, Daniel Libertines haunts visitors by the insupportable, immeasurable, unshakeable ruder (Bankers 45) of the Holocaust, while connecting it to the Berlin museum as a gesture of the Jewish and German cultures reconciliation. The atmosphere of the museums interior shifts and changes with different ways of light manipulation. This essay aims to address how light is manipulated to deliver historical significance into the museums interior, and how Libertines structures the interior to compliment the particular use tot natural light in order to create atmosphere. This essay starts with a brief introduction to the architect, Daniel Libertines, ND the structure, Jewish Museum Berlin, over »mewing its stylistic features and purpose, A comparison is drawn between the museum and sacred architecture, illustrating the symbols that light embodies. Structural features of the museum that contribute to the manipulation of light are examined, such as dead ends, uneven floors, Winding stairs, and empty spaces, or voids. An analysis on the role natural light plays in creating atmosphere follows, focusing on the Holocaust tower, Windows, slits Of light, and installation art piece Fallen Leaves. Light is the intangible material that conveys intangible ideas in architecture. In the Jewish Museum Berlin, Daniel Libertines wants to address the void that is left behind after a massacre. It achieves what mere concrete cant: a subtle yet powerful way to establish emotional connection with something that isnt graspable, and most importantly, to give voice to the past and history, giving the structure purpose and context. Chug Mary Yet pan (0637 ? 0020) The traumatic memory of growing up in Communist Poland (Gears) is integral to Daniel Libertines, where he comes to respect the importance Of history. In his Text talk on September 19th, 2012, he explains, every place has a history Moieties the voices are inaudible, sometimes the actions are invisible and yet the history continues to cry out for justice. The architect of the Jewish Museum Berlin is no bystander Of Jewish history, but one Who is part Of it. A visit to Westernizes and its Jewish Cemetery has inspired Daniel Libertines to the idea of a void (Bankers 39). Looking at the empty slabs of tombstone, he was overwhelmed by the fact that these victims Will forever remain unheard. It became evident to him that he mus t bring this feeling into the museum, creating a kind of haunting quality of spaces through which the passage of absence took lace (Libertines 204). Don Juan EssayAnd removes any distinction of traditional Christian motifs and aesthetic (Karol). He masterfully deconstructs the sense of holiness to light. As a result, the contrast between light and dark creates a humble, meditative place Of worship (Karol). The void created by Figure 7: Today Nods Church Of Light Source: Fuji, Annoy. N. D. Photograph. Archaically. Web. 21 Cot. 013. -today-and/>. The for rectangular stone slabs is the only symbol of Christ, which in turn makes the interior infinitely more powerful and pure than actual, physical representations of the Church. The distinctive lines of the stone slabs are highlighted with the projection of light, the cross sign is reflected onto walls and mirrors. Similarly to And, Libertines manipulates with the idea of a void in the Garden of Exile, using negative space to deliver the sense of spirituality. In light of monumental events such as the Holocaust, any physical symbolization would appear rather shallow and ephemeral. Using abstract materials such as light in the context of the Jewish Museum Berlin, however, spiritualists the invisible in a poetic and empowering way. When stripped away of any physical connotations, the past and the invisible can be felt as they truly are, communicating With visitors complex emotions that are beyond words and time. The structure of the museum is crucial to the titration of its interior space, and therefore the way light is used to create different atmospheres and delivering historical significances. The use of quadrilateral shapes results in the defined angles and lines within the windows, shadows and spaces, creating a cage-like interior that suggests violence. Daniel Libertines projects the Jewish way of thinking into the structure of the maximize museum, as he explains, in the Jewish tradition, ideas are not simply posited as ready-made, but are arrived at through an endless process of questioning The buildings organization poses many questions to visitors. There is no set way to read the building (Bitter Libertines 21). Dead ends (Bib 8) are stylistic of the museum. Throughout the museum are abrupt stops, stairs leading to nowhere and empty areas. As result, natural light reflects and refracts within these empty hallways, creating luminous patches Of light onto walls, the floor and the ceiling. Walking through the museum is an exploration itself, While these spaces and dead ends create an eerie atmosphere. Once again, the sense of emptiness represents the invisible, silent presences. Figure 8: Dead end Source: Chug, Mary, Photograph, JPG file, 30 June 2013. 12 In the museum, windows do not necessarily introduce sunlight. There are windows (Pig. G) in the museums that reveal concrete walls, which is the main material for the structure.

To write the directors notes on act 1 scene 5 Essay Example

To write the directors notes on act 1 scene 5 Essay To write the directors notes on act 1 scene 5. Explain the atmosphere you wish to convey to the audience in this scene. Explain to the actors playing Romeo and Juliet how you expect them to interpret their roles, especially in the scene but also in other parts of the play. As we start the party there is a lot of rush. The servants are not ready for the party to start but it all ready has. The first line of act one, scene five is. Wheres Potpan, that he helps not to take away? He shift a trencher! He scraped a trencher! Theres a huge rush as the party starts. The quote implies that the servants dont know what is going on, and looking for people that didnt remove the dishes. The party moves on as Romeo arrives. Capulet welcomes Romeo, Mercutio, and Benvolio, but does he know that they are Montagues? In the text Capulet said, welcome gentlemen! Three times to Romeo, Mercutio and Benvolio. Capulet it would seem doesnt know that his guests that he is welcoming are Montagues or does he? Capulet and Second Capulet talk of how long it has been since they have danced with each other. Tis not so much, tis not so much: tis since the nuptial of Lucentio. Some five and twenty years. The two Capulets have not danced with each other in 25years or more. They talk of old times. We will write a custom essay sample on To write the directors notes on act 1 scene 5 specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on To write the directors notes on act 1 scene 5 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on To write the directors notes on act 1 scene 5 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Romeo first lays eyes on Juliet. What lady is that which doth enrich the hand Of younder night. Romeo has just saw Juliet and he just has to speak his mind. There is a lot of imagery in this part of the play, O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! This implies that she stands out in a crowd. Tybalt hears Romeo speak and knows that it is Romeo and goes to his Uncle, Capulet, and tells him, Uncle, this is a Montague, our foe. Capulet is calm about Romeo at his party and dont mind. Young Romeo, is it. Let him alone. He tells him to leave Romeo alone and has been told many good things about him, this is proven by the quote, Verona brags of him. So Capulet lets Romeo stay. Tybalt is very raged by this and threatens Romeo, Now seeming sweet convert to bitter gall. This is implying that Romeo is lucky now but after time he wont be so lucky. But Romeo doesnt hear this and turns to look at Juliet. This is the biggest part of the play the love sonnet between Romeo and Juliet. If I profane with my unworthiest hand This holy shrine, the gentle sin is this: My lips two blushing pilgrims, ready stand To smooth that rough touch with tender kiss. Romeo wants to kiss Juliet. He uses a lot of imagery Juliet replies with. Good pilgrim, you do wrong your hand too much, Which mannerly devotion shows in this; For saints have hands that pilgrims hands do touch, and palm to palm is holy palmers kiss. Juliet is asking for him to kiss her but will he or not? There is still a lot of imagery Have not saint lips, and holy palmers too? All there is all imagery using examples to show what he is doing or trying do. Ay, pilgrim, lips that they must use in prayer. There is use of praying as Romeos and Juliets hands touch. O then, dear saint, let lips do what hands do! They pray: grant thou, last faith turn to despair. Romeo asks to kiss Juliet but says it in a different way to just coming out and saying it. Saints do not move, though grant for prayers sake. She slowly pulls away and resists him. Then move not, while my prayers effect I take. This is the big part of the scene; this is where Romeo kisses Juliet. Thus from my lips, by thine, my sin is purgd. This is a hint to the end of the play. Then have my lips the sin that they have took. She has also taken the sin. The hint to the end of the play. Sin from my lips? O trespass sweetly urgd! Give me my sin again. Romeo wants another kiss. But. You kiss by the book. Implies that Romeo is a good kiss. Then the nurse buts in. Madam, your mother craves a word with you. The nurse interrupts the biggest part of the play and breaks the whole conversation up. From here the two lovers are parted from one another. Romeo is wondering just who Juliet is, and asks the nurse What is her mother? Romeo is distraught to find out that Her mother is the lady of the house. That line is enough to turn Romeo away but he has fallen for her, he loves her! Juliet also does this to find out who Romeo is. She asks the nurse who some of the people on the dance floor are trying not to look too interested in Romeo, Go, ask his name. When Juliet finds out he is a Montague she says, my only love sprung from my only hate! Juliet loves Romeo but she and her family hate the name of any Montague. Juliet and the nurse leave the party. There are many characters in act one scene five, but there are only a couple of main characters. The main characters are Romeo and Juliet, Capulet, the Nurse, Tybalt and Benvolio. The way they act and should feel towards one another are as follows. Romeo and Juliet, the lovers of the scene and the main characters of this scene. Their love as show in the scene was unexplainable from the first time they sore each other, what ladys that which doth enrich the hand of yonder knight. Romeo and Juliet should speak to each other in a passionate way. The mood these two will feel in this scene is love between each other. Capulet, is the calm and doesnt want to cause a scene at his own party when he finds out Romeo is there. Young Romeo is it. Content thee, gentle coz, let him alone. He likes Romeo. This man is strong headed and knows what he wants. Capulet should talk in a calm but demanding way. Capulets mood is laid back and calm. Nurse, the nurse is the messenger between Romeo and Juliet and is a bit of a talkative person. The nurse says five lines, her mother is the lady of the house after a simple question from Romeo. The nurse should talk in a quick and fast. The nurses mood happy and overwhelmed bout the party. Tybalt, is a strong always ready for any thing and is the nephew to Capulet. He doesnt have a big part in the scene apart from the madness of finding a Montague at his familys party. It fits when such villain is a guest. He should talk strong and be intrigued by what people have to say. Tybalt is very augury in this scene. Imagery is used a lot in this play mostly in this scene; the love sonnet is all imagery. The prayers hand is showing how their hands touch. The sin of their lips shows and implies how their lives will end up, as their love progresses. This scene should leave the audience guessing what is going to happen if they pick up on the imagery. This is a change from the first scenes, the first scene are hate and depression this will bring the audience to a climax as they wait to find out what happens next.

10 Fascinating Facts About Grasshoppers

10 Fascinating Facts About Grasshoppers Famed fable writer Aesop portrayed the grasshopper as a neer do well who fiddled away his summer days without a thought to the future but in the real world, the destruction wreaked by grasshoppers on farming and ranching is far from a harmless parable. Although grasshoppers are extremely common, theres more to these summertime critters than meets the eye. Heres a list of 10 fascinating grasshopper-related facts. 1. Grasshoppers and Locusts Are One and the Same When we think of grasshoppers, most people recall pleasant childhood memories of trying to catch the jumping insects in meadows or backyards. Say the word locusts, however, and it brings to mind images of historic plagues raining down destruction on crops and devouring every plant in sight. Truth be told, grasshoppers and locusts are members of the same insect order. While certain species are commonly referred to grasshoppers and others as locusts, both creatures are short-horned members of the order Orthoptera. Jumping herbivores with shorter antennae are grouped into the suborder Caelifera, while their longer-horned brethren (crickets and katydids) belong to the suborder Ensifera. 2. Grasshoppers Have Ears on Their Bellies The grasshoppers auditory organs are found not on the head, but rather, on the abdomen. A pair of membranes that vibrate in response to sound waves are located one on either side of the first abdominal segment, tucked under the wings. This simple eardrum, called a tympanal organ, allows the grasshopper to hear the songs of its fellow grasshoppers. 3. Although Grasshoppers Can Hear, They Cant Distinguish Pitch  Very Well As with most insects, the grasshoppers auditory organs are simple structures. They can detect differences in intensity and rhythm, but not pitch. The male grasshoppers song isnt particularly melodic which is a good thing since females dont care whether or not a fellow can carry a tune. Each species of grasshopper produces a characteristic rhythm that distinguishes its song from others and enables courting males and females of a given species to find one another. 4. Grasshoppers Make Music by Stridulating or Crepitating If youre not familiar with those terms, dont worry. Its not all that complicated. Most grasshoppers stridulate, which simply means that they rub their hind legs against their forewings to produce their trademark tunes. Special pegs on the inside of the hind leg act like a percussion instrument of sorts when they come in contact with the thickened edge of the wing. The band-winged grasshoppers crepitate or loudly snap their wings as they fly. 5. Grasshoppers Catapult Themselves Into the Air If youve ever tried to catch a grasshopper, you know how far they can jump to flee danger. If humans could jump the way grasshoppers do, we would be able to easily leap the length of a football field. How do these insects jump so far? Its all in those big, back legs. A grasshoppers hind legs function like miniature catapults. In preparation for a jump, the grasshopper contracts its large flexor muscles slowly, bending its hind legs at the knee joint. A special piece of cuticle within the knee acts as a spring, storing up all the potential energy. The grasshopper then relaxes its leg muscles, allowing the spring to release its energy and fling the insect into the air. 6. Grasshoppers Can Fly Because grasshoppers have such powerful jumping legs, people sometimes dont realize that they also have wings. Grasshoppers use their jumping ability to give them a boost into the air but most are pretty strong fliers and make good use of their wings to escape predators. 7. Grasshoppers Cause Billions of Dollars in Damage to Food Crops Annually One lone grasshopper cant do too much harm, although it eats about half its body weight in plants each day- but when locusts swarm, their combined feeding habits can completely defoliate a landscape, leaving farmers without crops and people without food. In the U.S. alone, grasshoppers cause about $1.5 billion in damage to grazing lands each year. In 1954, a swarm of Desert locusts (Schistocerca gregaria) consumed over 75 square miles of wild and cultivated plants in Kenya. 8. Grasshoppers Are an Important Source of Protein People have been consuming locusts and grasshoppers for centuries. According to the Bible, John the Baptist ate locusts and honey in the wilderness. Locusts and grasshoppers are a regular dietary component in local diets in many areas of Africa, Asia, and the Americas- and since theyre packed with protein, theyre an important nutritional staple as well. 9. Grasshoppers Existed Long Before Dinosaurs Modern-day grasshoppers descend from ancient ancestors that lived long before dinosaurs roamed the Earth. The fossil record shows that primitive grasshoppers first appeared during the Carboniferous period, more than 300 million years ago. Most ancient grasshoppers are preserved as fossils, although grasshopper nymphs (the second stage in the grasshopper lifestyle after the initial egg phase) are occasionally found in amber. 10. Grasshoppers  May Spit Liquid to Defend Themselves If youve ever handled grasshoppers, youve probably had a few of them spit brown liquid on you in protest. Scientists believe this behavior is a means of self-defense, and the liquid helps the insects repel predators. Some people say grasshoppers spit tobacco juice, probably because historically, grasshoppers have been associated with tobacco crops. Rest assured, however, the grasshoppers arent using you as a spittoon.

Answer these questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Answer these questions - Assignment Example Humans: We [Humans] live in nature and culture. Even though much of our behavioral traits are inherited, we have opinions, and so form judgments. That as the inert aspects of biology interacts with the external components of culture, certain thoughts passed along to the latter generations fades away, in effect, explaining how natural selection operates on cultural thoughts. Culture affords that extra capacity for humans to adjust to the challenges of nature. 1) Explain the differences about whether Neanderthals were humans exactly like us or not. What traits did they have that were like us, and which were different, and how can you explain these through the principles of natural selection and variation? The Neanderthals were generally similar to modern man in appearance; the anatomy was essentially human in scope, with a similar number of bones functioning in the same manner. They were, however, different in terms of their robustness [thickness and strength]. The Neanderthal also had backward sloped forehead, with a slightly forward protruding nose compared to modern humans. The similarities in the physical traits of the two come from the very fact that both humans and Neanderthals acquired certain genetic variables from a common ancestor; variables which may have been â€Å"wiped clean† with certain beneficial aspects of mutation, causing variations in humans to help develop language or engage in complex interactive mechanisms, in effect, showing the very nature of natural selection in action. 2) How can bones tell us stories that history cannot? What specific scientific methods would you employ to study a group of skeletons from a volcanic eruption, in which the ruler of the time said all the people escaped the disaster? Scientific evidence has proven beyond reasonable doubles that organisms evolve/change over time. Through the studies of bones, scientists can, therefore, how species have changed across long

Mild Mental Retardation Related focused on pediatric population and Research Paper

Mild Mental Retardation Related focused on pediatric population and communication disorders - Research Paper Example To establish a diagnosis of mental retardation, the intelligence has to be atleast 2 standard deviations less than the mean intelligent quotient. Mental retardation can be categorized into mild, moderate, severe and profound based on the intelligent quotient and of these, mild mental retardation (MMR) accounts for more than 85 percent of the cases. The intelligent quotient is between 50-55 to 70 and the standard deviation below mean is 2-3. According to Reschly (2009), "MMR was the official designation of a level of MR that involved current intellectual functioning performance between 2 and 3 standard deviations below the population mean and significant limitations in some, but not all, facets of everyday adaptive functioning." The DSM (2005) criteria for mental retardation includes "significantly sub-average intellectual functioning- an IQ of approximately 70 or below, trouble with functioning in multiple areas of life and onset before age 18." Since those with MMR do not have much biological or physical involvement, there is no biological stigmata associated with the diagnosis (Nadelson, 2001). On the other hand, in those with levels of mental retardation beyond MMR, the diagnosis is often made in preschool years and the setting of identification is usually a health care system (Reschly, 2009). The comprehensiveness of the individual is poor and affects performance of the individuals in all social setting and also functional roles. Biological stigmata is always present with the diagnosis (Reschly, 2009). Diagnosis of MMR is often complex and also controversial because of lack of unequivocal symptoms and signs (Hegde and Pomaville, 2008). The diagnosis of MMR was recognized formally about a century ago and has been described in the earlier versions of American Association on Mental Retardation Disabilities (Reschly, 2009). When compared to other levels of mental retardation, MMR is usually not diagnosed until the child attains school age and the diagnosis usua lly occurs subsequent to referral from the class teacher of the child for suboptimal academic performance. Individuals with MMR typically do not exhibit any physical characteristics, neither do they have much impairment of comprehension (Reschly, 2009). When compared to other levels of mental retardation, MMR is usually not diagnosed until the child attains school age and the diagnosis usually occurs subsequent to referral from the class teacher of the child for suboptimal academic performance. Individuals with MMR typically do not exhibit any physical characteristics, neither do they have much impairment of comprehension (Reschly, 2009). Recent formulations for grading the severity of mental retardation are based on the levels of support needed rather than intelligent quotient. This is because; support levels are anyway related conceptually to impairment levels. Four levels of support are described in this regard and they are analogous to the four levels of impairment used earlier (Reschley, 2009). In this essay, communication problems, their evaluation tools, and treatment will be discussed with reference to MMR. Since there are several causes of MMR and it is beyond the purview of this essay to discuss them, one cause of MMR, the William syndrome will be discussed. Speech and language characteristics of the disorder The permanence in MMR is variable and its identification is unlike during preschool age period and adulthood.

Law and Policy Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Law and Policy - Case Study Example Information security in an organization involves ensuring that only people with rights to read, change, broadcast and use it have access to it. Different organizations have their own policies which guide the implementation of any new system. Policies in an organization need employees to comply with them. Policies describe the rules and procedures for organization employ to comply with (Kiefer, Wu, Wilson & Sabett 2004). The need for information security is to primarily protect information from any unauthorized party. Several threats can pose to make information insecure. There is a need to ensure information is secure while ensuring that the policies and legal guidelines of the organization and the surrounding environment are adhered with (Kiefer, Wu, Wilson & Sabett 2004). Government and organizational policies dictate the implementation of an information security system. The government policies are determined and issued to organizations depending on the type or kind of governing en vironment within the organization’s operation. The government can be federal, state, local or tribal. The on the type of the business industry, the government policies act as a framework for organizations’ administration or management to comply with in order to secure information and information systems (Straub, Goodman & Baskerville 2008). The need for government policies is to control and regulate the relevant market in order to avoid conflicts which might arise among the industry players. The government policies give a procedure and guidelines for organizational governments to follow when implementing information security systems. Organization policies are devised by the organization as a guideline when implementing a new system. The policies are devised to ensure that laws, regulations and policies are complied to. The policies provide a framework for relevant restrictions and privileges for use of information for every employ. The organization policies strive to e nsure that people and information are protected (Straub, Goodman & Baskerville 2008). This is normally accomplished by setting the rules for access of information for each and every employee use of information (Straub, Goodman & Baskerville 2008). Organizational policies assists the organization in complying with governmental policies in order to avoid violation of the latter’s policies. The policies include the rules which control the actions of information users and management. The policies include authorization privileges for use of information, need for probe, monitoring and investigation on the use of information. The policies also include information infringement consequences, the information security baseline position by the organization. The policies restrict users from accessing what they are not supposed to in order to reduce risk and tampering of information (Straub, Goodman & Baskerville 2008). Organizations need information security policies in order to eradicate or minimize any looming risks associated with the use of information. The eminent risks can be unauthorized access to organization information either internally or externally. The policies set the laws required before the use of any information or implementation of

Jean Paul Sartres Writing - No Exit Essay -- essays research papers

Jean Paul Sartre’s Philosophical Writing   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jean Paul Sartre personally believed in the philosophical idea of existentialism, which is demonstrated in his play No Exit. His ideas of existentialism were profoundly outlined in the play. Based on the idea that mental torture is more agonizing than physical, No Exit leaves the reader with mixed emotions towards the importance of consequences for one’s acts.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Set in Hell, the vision of the underworld is nothing the characters imagined as they are escorted to a Second Empire styled hotel. This is all ironic, in the fact that Sartre never believed in perdition. He uses this fictitious place to persuade his audience. Hell is used as a foundation to prove his point. The characters, Garcin, Inez, and Estelle, are all brought together by some kind of complicated design that they try to unveil. Each character has a story and a reason for their damnation, but what they look for is an answer for their presence with each other. Garcin, a journalist and pacifist that took 12 to the chest, was the first to attempt to mend matters in the room. His idea to be courteous to one another is later contradicted when he begins to fight with Inez. Estelle, a self-absorbed instigator, appears to suffer from denial.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As these three people sit and argue about their past, their visions of life on earth are gradually fading. When they see how things are not going as the...

Beowulf Essay

When Beowulf dies, the Geats dwell upon his greatness. They see him as a hero, not just because of the things he accomplished, but because of the sacrifices he made for them. The character, Beowulf, is a classic example of someone who fights for pride and glory. He is a brave warrior who is trying to repay his father’s debts to the king of Denmark. Beowulf is a tragic hero because he is noble, has a tragic flaw that leads to his downfall, and sacrifices himself for the good of his people. The achievements that Beowulf accomplishes make the people believe in him as a tragic hero. To be noble, one has to possess power and authority, but still fulfill obligations to their people. Beowulf stands as a noble king. He earns his power, and leads and fights for his people. At the end of the story, Beowulf battles a dragon that has been troubling his people. This shows us the sacrifice he makes for the Geats to try to save them. After Beowulf is defeated and killed by the dragon, his loyal warrior, Wiglaf, speaks. Wiglaf, the only warrior standing by his side during the fight, tells the other warriors that they have betrayed Beowulf, the king â€Å"who showered you with gifts† (2866). In this quote, Wiglaf is saying that Beowulf has proven his loyalty to his warriors by giving them weapons, armor, and treasure, which in their society was expected of a king or ring-giver. After Beowulf’s death, the Geats realize his nobility, generosity, and bravery. Although Beowulf is a noble king, he, like every tragic hero, has a tragic flaw. In Beowulf’s case it is hubris. Hubris is a characteristic of someone who is over confident or prideful. Pride has a good and a bad consequence for Beowulf. One benefit of pride is that it promotes confidence in battles. For example, when Beowulf goes to fight Grendel, he says, â€Å"now I mean to be a match for Grendel, / settle the outcome in single combat† (425-426). In this quote, Beowulf is saying that he wants to keep the matchup fair between Grendel and himself, so to keep the playing field level he will fight him without any weapons. This is a great example of Beowulf being over confident in himself by saying he doesn’t need weapons to kill Grendel. When he is young, his pride helps him win battles, but at an old age, hubris can be a flaw. This is seen when Beowulf faces the dragon after he has been king for 50 years. At this old age, Beowulf is still so prideful that he wants to fight the dragon alone. This is an example of how his hubris is a detriment. Because of his hubris, Beowulf does not regard age and thinks he will be victorious just as in previous battles. He finds out this is not so when he is defeated. Beowulf makes many sacrifices in the course of the story to protect his people. The final sacrifice even leads to his death. Near the end of the story, Beowulf hears of a dragon that has been terrorizing his people. To destroy this figure, which the people fear, he goes to fight the dragon with his warriors. When he arrives to the area where the dragon lives, he turns around to his men and says, â€Å"this fight is not yours, / nor is it up to any man except me/ to measure his strength against the monster or to prove his worth† (2533-2535). In this quote, Beowulf tells his warriors he wants to fight the dragon alone. He commands them to stay back so that he may kill the dragon by himself. The main reason why he does this is because he feels responsible for his people and he believes he is the only one that should defend them. His men obey his words, and he goes into battle by himself. At the end of the fight, Wiglaf sees Beowulf die, and realizes the honorable king he was and the heroic sacrifice that he made for his people. Throughout the story and his many battles, Beowulf displays the characteristics of a tragic hero. He was noble, and made many great sacrifices for his people. Beowulf shows that performing his duty as king was more important to him than his own life. This ultimate sacrifice shows the Geats the true hero he was for them. Beowulf, not only in this book, but in all old English literature is one of the best examples of a tragic hero.

Avoiding Phishing and Email Scams - 1185 Words

It could be said that Phishing and Email scams are something that every Internet user has to face at some point, probably almost on a daily basis. Over the last several years phishing and email scams have increased tremendously, promising to enrich the recipient with just a couple clicks and some personal information. Phishing always spikes with holiday shopping, celebrity scandals, weather disasters and big sporting events (Bond, 2011). Phishing scams generally use fear and expectations. It is almost unimaginable that there might be an Internet user with an email address that hasn’t received an email promising large sums of money from a Nigerian Prince. As mentioned in other sections of this project, the goal is have consumers enticed into revealing their personal identification and financial information on fraudulent websites, also known as spoofed websites (Brody, Mulig, Kimball, 2007). As time has gone on since these scams began appearing on the Internet, the scammers have become more sophisticated. Emails appear more legitimate, appearing to be from sources like the users bank, from the IRS and many other financial entities. In this section we are going to discuss the various ways to discover these scams and what steps should be taken to prevent falling victim to these scams. In today’s world, many Internet users visit websites in which require the use of personal data, such as online banking sites, Paypal accounts, the Internal Revenue Service, Facebook accounts, asShow MoreRelatedThe Problem Of Accessing Private Information906 Words   |  4 Pagesillegally is through making phishing emails invisible to the users. Such emails can be made invisible to end users in various ways: the first way is to filter phishing emails. For instance, Spam emails have always been easy to filter, but phishing emails can be regarded as a new technology utilized by attackers and have been hard to filter. Progressive milestones about controlling phishing emails are being made by some experts have developed some ways to filter corrupt emails through identifying fakeRead MoreUsed Techniques For Avoiding Data Theft1684 Words   |  7 PagesMajorly Used Techniques for Avoiding Data Theft Sumer Shaikh (Student) #1, Tulsidas Patil (Guide) *2 #Information Technology, Sinhgad Institute 1sumer.shaikh0313@gmail.com * Information Technology, Sinhgad Institute 2Email Address Abstract— The rising abuse of computers and increasing threat to personal privacy through data increases interest in protection of data. User of computer system and Internet are increasing worldwide which leads to increase the frequency of Data theft day by day. DataRead MoreProject Report On Cyber Security3058 Words   |  13 PagesOF NEW HAVEN INTRO TO COMPUTER SECURITY INSTRUCTOR: Dr. FRANK BREITINGER FINAL PROJECT REPORT ON PHISHING ATTACK BY AJAY MAREMALLA JAYA RUDRARAJU NAGINI REDDY BOLLA Phishing Attack Abstract: Phishing, the act of stealing personal information via the internet for the purpose of committing financial fraud, has become a significant criminal activity on the internet. The word â€Å"phishing† originally comes from the analogy that early Internet criminals used e-mail lures to â€Å"phish† for passwordsRead MoreE-Safety Essay Introduction- E-Safety E-safety or Electronic safety is about knowing the risks of2000 Words   |  8 Pagesand making sure that technology doesn’t impact your life in a negative way severely. It also includes utilization of information securely. Another aspect of electronic safety is socializing with others safely. Some dangers of the Internet include phishing, spam, hacking, viruses, interaction with strangers, etc. Cyber Bullying Cyber bullying is the use of technology to intentionally spread rumors or inappropriate content to harass or harm someone in an aggressive manner. A Cyber bully can be someoneRead MoreFraud : Criminal Crime And It Is One Most Common Act Of Crime1908 Words   |  8 Pagesinternet scam. This particular type of fraud has become very famous in the modern age (Olsen, 2015). Committing numerous types frauds over the internet is very common now-a-days. The internet is a heavenly platform for the con artists. It is very easy to avoid using one’s real identity and con people frequently. The internet also allows them to target a lot of people at once. The Nigerian email and the phishing links are the most common methods of fraud over the internet. Both of these are email relatedRead MoreMalware And Its Effects On Society1294 Words   |  6 Pagestoday because email providers are able to better filter them, but spammers are still able to get some messages through the complex filters. S pammers hope that out of the billions of messages they send at least a small percentage will make it past the filter to convince people to purchase the spammers goods. Phishing is another form cybercrime linked to malware. Most attackers use email to to deliver these attacks, and these can â€Å"vary from emails pretending to be from your bank or email service providersRead MoreCredit Card Fraud And Money Laundering2028 Words   |  9 Pagescharge purchases. In addition to skimming thieves steal card information by using a method called phishing, Phishing is a crime that starts with deceptive e-mails being sent to consumers. These messages are made to look as if they come from the person’s bank, in an effort to get the intended victim to reveal personal information, such as bank account numbers and online passwords. Phishing has become a widespread practice of criminals, who have succeeded in stealing personal informationRead MoreWhy The Leo Vegas Slots Experience1765 Words   |  8 Pagesthat I hope comes to end for good very soon. It seems that many players think that they can cheat the system and claim sign-up bonus after sign-up bonus. They attempt this by creating multiple accounts through multiple emails at a single online casino. Let me tell you now this scam is extremely foolish and won’t ever work over the long-term. Every time you register at an online casino your IP address is registered too, which means it is easy to see when a single user applies for multiple accountsRead MoreThe New York State Electric Gas Co2356 Words   |  10 Pagesdecide about what changes they should make in order to avoid future data breaches. 2 Problem 2.1 Problem statement There is no generally available source of information that lists a range of options for companies to take necessary steps for avoiding data breaches from reoccurring. 2.2 Significance of the problem and potential benefits Some companies continue to experience data breaches more than one time, even if they have already put security measures in place. After already making investmentsRead MoreComputer Fraud And Identity Theft1705 Words   |  7 Pagessocial media sites. When it comes to destroying personal documents similar to tax forms or invoice receipts the best way is to use a shredder not too simple through them into the garbage. Password protection is essential while using online tools like email, e-filing, and e-banking, for example, the use of a strong password. A strong password will not contain dates or words that are familiar or meaning full such as a birthdate or pets name. Another precaution is to always back digital files and documents

Edward Hopper Life and Art of an American Realist

Essay about Is Homosexuality Genetic or a Choice

I have known Rachel since we were in third grade and she’s been a close friend for most of that time. When we were in high school she told me that she was a lesbian and that she had known since we were children. She has tried dating men but doesn’t feel the kind of attraction for them that she had and still has for women. In a conversation we had nearly two years ago she told me, â€Å"I’m almost jealous of you. Sometimes I wish I could be attracted to men, it would make my life so much easier.† That comment has stuck with me ever since. She does not have it easy as a lesbian in a society that looks down on her for being an openly gay woman. People make snide comments at her and for the longest time her mother absolutely refused to believe she†¦show more content†¦They were wrong. Gay males dont think another male is female, and they dont respond as if they did† (Roughgarden 140). Many of these potentially gay rams did not respond to the hor mones released by the receptive ewes placed before them and did not mount them, but instead mounted other rams. If the argument of homosexual animals is not convincing enough, one must also consider the possibility of genetics. There is research suggesting that certain genetic markers on the x-chromosome are associated with homosexuality: â€Å"Using genetic mapping, the team found that a set of five genetic markers at the tip of the long arm of the X chromosome were identical in 33 of 40 pairs of homosexual brothers† (Journal Watch). This does not positively conclude that a person will be gay if he or she has these markers, but it does suggest that there are genetic factors at play rather than sexuality being merely a choice. Much of this research was done in 1993, and: â€Å"The same year, a study of twins found a significantly higher correlation of sexual orientation between identical as opposed to fraternal twins† (Bernstein 34). Two people with the same genetic makeup are more likely to both be gay or both be straight than two people with similar but not quite identical gene tics. There is no choice to have feelings for someone of the same, or the opposite, sex. If there was a choice in the matter, then people would be able to changeShow MoreRelatedHomosexuality : Genetic Or A Choice?1724 Words   |  7 PagesJessica Lamb Professor Daniel Levine PSYC 3320 May 9 2015 Homosexuality: Genetic or a Choice? It’s the year 2015 and the talk of homosexuality is still a controversial topic. Some people believe that being homosexual, or â€Å"gay†, is a choice and by being with someone of the same-sex you are committing a sin or doing something that is not viewed as â€Å"normal†. Although, now on television we are starting to see more and more homosexual couples and homosexual people on TV programs. Are people finally gettingRead MoreHomosexuality: Choice or genetic?902 Words   |  4 PagesHomosexuality has become an important issue in our community creating much controversy. The liberal citizens of our country congratulate those who have made the hard decision to â€Å"come out.† The decision to be openly homosexual is hard for some because of the rare acceptance that they receive. Society has made it so hard for homosexuals to be accepted, given the discrimination and hate crimes against them. The rights that have been taken from homosexuals, such as marriage , have led to a quest forRead MoreIs Homosexuality A Personal Choice Or Is It Genetics?2009 Words   |  9 PagesHomosexuality has been an ongoing controversial topic for decades and remains a taboo subject for many. The controversy stems from two distinct, main groups: liberals and conservatives. Both groups on opposite sides of the spectrum have created an uproar on what is right and what is wrong in regards to homosexuality. Social, religious, and personal beliefs have shaped many opinions and views on the perspective of homosexuality, thus creating opposing spheres without the consideration of scientificRead MoreEssay about Homosexuality is a Choice Rather than Genetics749 Words   |  3 Pagesreporting of many popular newspapers and magazines report of the discovery of a link between a certain gene and homosexuality, but hasnt it been considered a choice for such a long time? Is homosexuality a choice rather than genetic? To answer this question well start off by revealing some myths of homosexuality. The next part will explain the difference between a behavioral trait and a genetic trait. Finally Ill end be unveiling the truth behind the homosexual gene. There are many things that theRead MoreWhat Causes Homosexuality996 Words   |  4 PagesWhat Causes Homosexuality? What causes homosexuality? There has been much debate about what causes homosexuality. Is there a gay gene? Is homosexuality caused by environmental factors, such as upbringing, child molestation, an absent mother or affectionate father? Or is it something we’re born with, an inherited trait, like skin or hair color? Although there have been few studies on the cause of homosexuality, the debate seems to be divided, with scientists in one corner and religious fundamentalistsRead MoreDoes Homosexuality Change the Brain or the Brain Results in Homosexuality?1039 Words   |  5 Pages Homosexuality is a product of biology because according to research, the hormones of the females are stronger. Dr. Hamer states that sexual orientation, male homosexuality is genetically influenced. This is passed down through their mothers to the hormone of their offspring. Sexual identity is wired into the genes, which discounts the concept that homosexuality and transgender sexuality are a choice. Since sexual differentiation occurs within the womb, as a result of hormonal influences, it hasRead MoreAmericans Acceptance of Homosexuality Essay873 Words   |  4 PagesIn today’s society the general public has slowly became more accepting of homosexuality over the passing years, however it still remains an extremely controversial subject for a large majority. Different people have formulated their own opinions on whether or not this particular lifestyle is right or wrong. Some of these opinions are backed by generations upon generations of traditional views and religious beli efs which can be particularly arduous to break away from. How strongly people feel aboutRead MoreHomosexuality Is Not A Choice For Adults963 Words   |  4 PagesBiological Based Homosexuality Over the past few decades, there has been controversy over the topic of homosexuality. Many people believe that there are homosexuals make the choice to be homosexual. On the contrary, several studies show that there are genetic factors that lead individuals toward a homosexual preference. The rights of people who are homosexual are becoming more progressive and are almost equivalent to those who are heterosexual in the United States. Homosexuality is a biological traitRead MoreHomosexuality, Genetics or Preference? Essay800 Words   |  4 PagesLet us begin with a definition of homosexuality. Homosexuality refers to a sexual attraction and or behavior between people of the same sex. In origin the word homosexual comes from the Greek word for â€Å"same† with the Latin word for â€Å"sex†. In my opinion, homosexuality can be classified into two groups - one being sexual orientation and the other being sexual preference. Homosexuality as a sexual orientation refers to an enduring pattern or disposition to experience sexual, affectional, or amorousRead MoreThe s Natural Law Theory1219 Words   |  5 Pagesand readings that we learned about this last seven weeks, I see that Christians are adapting to society s views by my fellow classmate’s discussions and posts. The specific challenges that I will discuss are: Birth control, cloning, genetic engineering, and homosexuality. Hopefully by the end of this paper I would have given you enough explanation to why I agree or disagree with these scientific enhancements that are occurring in the world today. In order to get my point across I will discuss the challenges

IT and Economic Performance Evidence From Micro Studies Free Essays

string(194) " whether businesses have computer networks, and how they use those networks that was collected in the Computer Network Use Supplement \(CNUS\) to the 1999 Annual Survey of Manufactures \(ASM\)\." CHAPTER V: IT AND ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE: EVIDENCE FROM MICRO DATA STUDIES By B. K. Atrostic and Ron Jarmin* Micro data—that is, data on individual businesses that underlie key economic indicators—allow us to go behind published statistics and ask how IT affects businesses’ economic performance. We will write a custom essay sample on IT and Economic Performance: Evidence From Micro Studies or any similar topic only for you Order Now Years ago, analyses indicated a positive relationship between IT and productivity, even when official aggregate statistics still pointed towards a â€Å"productivity paradox. Now, such analyses shed light on how varied that relationship is across businesses, and how IT makes its impacts. This chapter focuses on research about businesses based on micro data collected by the U. S. Census Bureau. We highlight the kinds of questions about the use and impact of IT that only micro data allow us to address. Micro data studies in the United States and in other OECD countries show that IT affects the productivity and growth of individual economic units. Specific estimates of the size of the effect vary among studies. Researchers comparing manufacturing plants in the United States and Germany, for example, find that in each country investing heavily in IT yields a productivity premium, but that the premium is higher in the United States than it is in Germany. They also find that the productivity premium varies much more for U. S. manufacturers. This greater variability is consistent with the view that the U. S. policy and institutional environments may be more conducive to experimentation by U. S. businesses. What kind of IT investments do U. S. businesses make? Census Bureau data on U. S. manufacturing establishments show that they invest in both computer networks and the kind of complex software that coordinates multiple business processes within and among establishments. About 50 percent of these plants have networks, while fewer than 10 percent have invested in this complex software. Such a wide difference between the presence of networks and * Ms Atrostic (barbara. kathryn. atrostic@census. gov) is Senior Economist, and Mr. Jarmin (ron. s. jarmin@census. gov) is Acting Director, Center for Economic Studies, U. S. Census Bureau. 61 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 complex software in manufacturing, and equally wide-ranging differences in their presence among detailed manufacturing industries, highlight the diversity of IT use among businesses. Plants with networks have higher productivity, even after controlling for many of the plant’s economic characteristics in the current and prior periods. Similar results are found in other OECD countries. Some studies suggest that businesses need to make parallel investments in worker training and revised workplace practices before IT investments yield productivity gains. Careful micro data research shows that the relationship between IT and economic performance is complex. â€Å"IT† emerges as a suite of alternatives from which businesses make different choices. Estimates of the size of the effect, and how IT makes its impact, remain hard to pinpoint. Data gaps make it hard to conduct careful analyses on the effect of IT. Continuing efforts by researchers and statistical organizations are filling some of the data gaps, but the gaps remain largest for the sectors outside manufacturing—the sectors that are the most IT-intensive. More definitive research requires that statistical agencies make producing micro data a priority. What Are Micro Data? Micro data generally contain information about many characteristics of the economic unit, such as plant employment, years in business, share of IT in costs, ways it uses IT, and its economic performance. Micro data exist for both businesses and individuals, and can be developed by private and public organizations. This chapter focuses on research using micro data about businesses that are collected by the U. S. Bureau of the Census. BENEFITS OF MICRO DATA RESEARCH Standard analyses of productivity and similar economic phenomena frequently assume that businesses are identical, at least within an industry, and therefore also respond similarly to changes in economic circumstances. However, it is easy to challenge this assumption simply by observing the variety of businesses in any industry, no matter how narrowly the industry is defined, and how diverse their responses appear to be. Case studies in specific industries repeatedly bear out this observation. Micro data allow us to assess the diversity of businesses and track behaviors such as their entry and exit into an industry. They also allow us to document changes in businesses’ performance, such as employment, sales, and productivity, and see whether those changes are uniform among industries, within industries, or among businesses of given ages, sizes, and so forth. Two decades of research using micro data reveal tremendous variety in the economic characteristics and performance of businesses at any time, and over time. 1 An excellent summary is E. Barltesman and M. Doms, â€Å"Understanding Productivity: Lessons from Longitudinal Microdata,† Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 38 (September 2000). It reviews research conducted at the U. S. Census Bureau and gives references for reviews of micro data research conducted elsewhere. A detailed report on initial micro data research on productivity is provided in M. Baily, C. Hulten, and D. Campbell, â€Å"Productivity Dynamics in Manufacturing Plants,† Brookings Papers on Economic Activity: Microeconomics 1992. 1 62 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 Micro data can paint a clearer picture of how aggregate economic statistics change. They also allow researchers to apply econometric techniques that take account of the kinds of complex relationships that simply cannot be presented in tables or other aggregated formats. Comparing findings from research studies using different data sets allows us to see which estimates appear to be robust, and which ones seem to depend on the specific data we use, and on the specific equations we estimate. RESEARCH REQUIRES GOOD MICRO DATA Micro data research takes advantage of the high-quality information about individual businesses that underlies major economic indicators. The micro data sets typically are large and nationally representative, making it more likely that they capture the tremendous diversity among businesses. 2 Researchers often are able to link data at the micro level across surveys and over time. For example, consider the new information on whether businesses have computer networks, and how they use those networks that was collected in the Computer Network Use Supplement (CNUS) to the 1999 Annual Survey of Manufactures (ASM). You read "IT and Economic Performance: Evidence From Micro Studies" in category "Papers" The plant-level micro data about computer networks collected in the CNUS can be linked to information about employment, shipments, use of other inputs, etc. , collected about the same plants in the 1999 ASM and to ASMs for other years, and to data that was collected about the same plants in the 1997 Economic Census. Such exact linkages yield much richer information bases than any single supplement, survey, or census alone. Whe n micro data can be linked, researchers also can use econometric techniques to control for unobserved characteristics that are specific to an individual plant or business. These techniques allow researchers to have more confidence that findings, such as the effect of IT actually are due to IT and not to related but unmeasured characteristics, such as good management or a skilled work force. The Role of Information Technologies in Business Performance Recent research using micro data generally concludes that IT and productivity are related. Indeed, micro data analyses indicated a positive relationship between IT and productivity when official aggregate statistics still pointed towards a â€Å"productivity paradox. Two recent reviews of plant- or firm-level empirical studies of information technology (including but not limited to computers) and economic performance conclude that the literature shows positive relationships between information technology and productivity. However, specific estimates of the size of the effect vary widely among studies. How IT makes its impact also remains hard to pinpoint. While micro data provide raw material for importan t analyses, they are not a panacea. Researchers must address significant challenges when using existing micro data to analyze questions about the economic performance of businesses. See Z. Griliches, â€Å"Productivity, RD, and the Data Constraint,† American Economic Review, Vol. 84 No. 1 (March 1994); and Z. Griliches, and J. Mairesse, â€Å"Production functions: The Search for Identification,† NBER Working Paper 5067 (March 1995). 3 2 More information on these surveys is available at http://www. census. gov/eos/www/ebusiness614. htm. 63 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 THE ROLE OF IT IN PRODUCTIVITY—A BRIEF SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE Many recent studies use micro data to document and describe the productivity of different kinds of businesses, and to examine its sources. The simple model that suggests productivity growth occurs among all existing plants simply does not fit with what the micro data show. Instead, the micro data show that much of aggregate productivity growth comes about through a much more diversified and dynamic process. Less productive plants go out of business, relatively productive plants continue, and the new entrants that survive are more productive than either. Micro data research on the effect of IT explores how IT fits into this complex picture of business behavior. Dozens of research papers over the last decade examine various facets of the relationship between IT and productivity. Two recent reviews summarizing the current literature on IT and productivity conclude that there is an impact, although there is much variation among studies in the estimated magnitudes of that effect (Dedrick, J. , Gurbaxani, V. , and K. Kraemer, 2003, â€Å"Information Technology and Economic Performance: A Critical Review of the Empirical Evidence,† ACM Computing Surveys, Vol. 35, No. 1, March and Stiroh, K. J. 2002, â€Å"Reassessing the Impact of IT in the Production Function: A Meta-Analysis,† Federal Reserve Band of New York, November). 4 Dedrick et al. (2003) review over 50 articles published between 1985 and 2002, many of which are firm-level studies with productivity as the performance measure. They conclude that firmlevel studies show positive relationships, and that gross returns to information technology investments exceed returns to other investments. They warn against concluding that higher gross returns mean that plants are under-investing in information technology. Most studies do not adjust for the high obsolescence rate of information technology capital, which lowers net returns. Also, total investment in information technology may be understated because most studies measure only computer hardware, but not related labor or software, or costs of coinvention, such as re-engineering business processes to take advantage of the new information technology. Stiroh (2002) reviews twenty recent empirical studies of the relationship between information technology and output and productivity. The studies generally find a positive effect of information technology on output. However, the estimates differ across studies, and the studies differ in many dimensions, including time periods covered and specific estimation techniques used. Stiroh looks for predictable effects of differences in characteristics of the studies, such as time periods, level of aggregation (e. g. , industry, sector, or entire economy), and estimation techniques. He finds that much of the variation across studies in the estimates of the effect of information technology probably reflects differences in characteristics of the studies. 4 Many of those studies, including many studies discussed in this chapter, were conducted at the Center for Economic Studies (CES) at the U. S. Census Bureau. Appendix 5. A describes both CES, a research unit that conducts research and supports the needs of researchers and decision makers throughout government, academia, and business, and some of the major data sources available there for micro data research on the impact of IT. 64 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 Stiroh also reports the findings of additional research he conducts using a single industry-level database to estimate many of the different equations used in the studies he reviewed. His research finds that information technology matters, but that even within a single database, estimates of the magnitude of that effect depend on the particular equation that is estimated. Finally, Stiroh notes a potential for publication bias. Because theory predicts a positive relationship between IT and productivity, researchers may tend to report, and editors may tend to accept for publication, only those papers with the â€Å"right† results on the impact of IT. However, as his research demonstrates, estimates are sensitive to both the data used and the particular equation that is estimated. He concludes that information technology matters, but the wide variation in empirical estimates means that much â€Å"depends on the details of the estimation† and â€Å"one must be careful about putting too much weight on any given estimates. † The conclusion that recent studies show a positive effect of information technology stands in contrast to earlier studies, many of which found no relationship. Both Dedrick (2003) and Stiroh (2002) note that the best data available to early researchers suffered from small sample sizes, few or no small firms or plants, and lack of data on information technology investment. These data gaps may be why early micro data studies failed to find a relationship between IT and performance. CAUSE AND EFFECT: DOES USING IT MAKE BUSINESSES MORE PRODUCTIVE? The literature so far yields mixed findings on cause and effect between IT and plant-level economic performance. Early research is limited to manufacturing. The first findings in this area were that more productive plants may be more likely to adopt best practices, including new technologies, and that they are able to afford to do so. However, later research suggests that less productive plants may invest in those technologies, perhaps trying to boost their productivity. 6 Recent research expands the scope of analysis of the effect of IT in the retail sector. It examines the relationship between investments in information technology and two performance measures for retail firms, productivity and growth in the number of establishments. The research finds that, in retail, IT is closely related to productivity grow th, but not to growth in the number of establishments that retail firms operate. 5 R. H. McGuckin, M. L. Streitwieser, and M. E. Doms, â€Å"The Effect of Technology Use on Productivity Growth,† Economic Innovation and New Technology Journal, 7 (October 1998). 6 Stolarick Kevin M. , â€Å"Are Some Firms Better at IT? Differing Relationships between Productivity and IT Spending,† Center for Economic Studies Working Paper CES-WP-99-13, U. S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC (1999); and B. K. Atrostic, and S. Nguyen, â€Å"IT and Productivity in U. S. Manufacturing: Do Computer Networks Matter,† Center for Economic Studies Working Paper CES-02-01, U. S. Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC (2002). M. Doms, R. Jarmin, and S. Klimek, â€Å"IT Investment and Firm Performance in U. S. Retail Trade,† Center for Economic Studies Working Paper CES-WP-02-14, U. S. Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC (2002). 7 65 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 Does the Business Environment Matter? —International Comparisons Although researchers have found evidence of the effect of IT on productivity at the micro level across many countries, the effect on aggregate productivity and economic growth has varied across countries. This is true even though IT is universally available. While the United States and a few other economies enjoyed the boom of the late 90s, many European economies experienced sluggish growth. Several explanations have been put forward including differences in the policy and institutional settings across countries, measurement issues, and time lags (micro data research showed positive effects of IT in the United States before aggregate statistics). Some have hypothesized that the U. S. economy was able to make more effective use of the new general-purpose technology of IT because its regulatory and institutional environment permits firms to experiment more. An important component of the U. S. bility in this regard is the efficient reallocation of resources away from firms whose experiments in the marketplace fail, to those whose experiments succeed. The OECD’s Growth Project (Box 5. 1) study found evidence that the Schumpeterian processes of churning and creative destruction (or market selection) yield greater economic effects in t he United States than in other OECD countries. These processes affect aggregate productivity growth as lower productivity firms shrink and exit and higher productivity firms enter and grow. Is it the case that IT has had a greater impact on business performance in the United States because the U. S. policy and institutional environment is more conducive to market selection and learning? Box 5. 1. OECD International Micro Data Initiative No single country has the resources and technical expertise to independently resolve all the measurement issues and fill all the information gaps associated with measuring the impact of IT. The OECD Growth Project provided a comprehensive analysis of the impact of information and communication technology (ICT) on productivity and economic growth in several OECD countries, using aggregate, industry-level, and plant-level data. Based on that project’s success, U. S. Commerce Secretary Evans requested additional micro data research, and provided the OECD with seed money. This new project seeks to build on efforts already under way in several OECD member countries. One facet of the OECD micro data project on ICT is a series of multi-national collaborations, with a small number of countries involved in each collaboration. Each group is developing its own way of reconciling the differences in each country’s existing micro data that are important to comparative studies, such as the sectors covered, the scope of businesses included in each sector, and the specific questions asked. The OECD project also seeks explicitly to foster coordination and collaboration on e-business issues between data producers and data users in each country. Project members are from both the OECD’s Statistical Working Party of the Committee on Industry and Business Environment (largely data users focused on productivity and growth statistics) and the new Working Party on Indicators on the Information Society (largely producers of statistical indicators). 66 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 Recent research using micro data from the United States and Germany attempts to address this question. 8 The analysis first compares the differences between various groups (e. g. , young vs. old, or those that invest heavily in IT vs. those that do not) of manufacturing establishments within each country. These differences are then compared across the two countries. This allows the researchers to contrast the impact of IT on economic performance between the two countries. The results suggest that U. S. anufacturing establishments benefit more from investing in IT and are more likely to experiment with different ways of conducting business than their German counterparts even after controlling for several plant specific factors such as industry, age, size, and so on. Figure 5. 1 summarizes results from an analysis of the impact of changing technologies on productivity outcomes. For the analysis, businesses undergoing an episode of high investment are assumed to be actively changing the ir technology. Manufacturers in both countries were grouped according to investment intensity as defined by investment per worker. The researchers examined investment in both general and IT-specific equipment. The core comparison group had no investment. The other two groups—with investment in any equipment, and investment in IT equipment—were split into â€Å"high† and â€Å"low† investment groups at the 75th percentile of the investment intensity distributions. Plants with â€Å"high† investment intensities were those with intensities exceeding at least 75 percent of all other investing plants. These computations were done for both overall investment in equipment (excluding structures) and for IT equipment, giving a combined seven investment intensity categories. Businesses undergoing an episode of high investment intensity can be thought of as actively changing their technologies. The market will reward some of these and punish others. The crux of the analysis summarized in Figure 5. 1 is to first compare the performance of plants across the various investment intensity groups to a baseline of firms with no investment within each country (i. e. , the bars for the listed investment intensity categories in the figure represent the percent difference from the omitted zero investment category for each country). Then the researchers compared the within country differences across the United States and Germany to see in which country the reward for experimentation (as measured by high investment episodes) is highest. Panel A shows that U. S. businesses that invest heavily, both overall and in IT, are much more productive than those that invest little or none at all. The same holds true for Germany, but the productivity premium is much higher in the United States. Panel B shows that U. S. businesses that invest heavily (i. e. are experimenting with new technologies) have more varied productivity outcomes as measured by the standard deviation than do firms that invest little or not at all. This is not the case in Germany. In fact, the German data show that firms that invest intensively have less varied productivity outcomes. This is consistent with the notion that the U. S. policy and institutional environment is more conducive to market experimentation. These results should be viewed with cauti on as they relate to only two countries and there are many factors the researchers do not control for. 8 J. Haltiwanger, R. Jarmin, and T. Schank, â€Å"Productivity, Investment in ICT and Market Experimentation: Micro Evidence from Germany and the U. S. ,† Center for Economic Studies Working Paper CES-03-06, U. S. Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC (2003). 67 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 Figure 5. 1. Differences in Productivity Outcomes between Germany and the United States Panel A: U. S. Firms Investing Heavily in IT and Other Capital Have Higher Productivity Premiums 100% % Difference in Mean Productivity Relative to Group with No Investment U. S. 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Low / 0 Germany High / 0 Low / Low Low / High High / Low High / High Investment Intensity (Equipment / IT) Panel B: U. S. Firms Investing Heavily in IT and Other Capital Experience More Varied Productivity Outcomes 50% U. S. % Difference in Standard Deviation of Productivity Relative to Group with No Investment Germany 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% -10% -20% -30% -40% Low / 0 High / 0 Low / Low Low / High High / Low High / High Investment Intensity (Equipment / IT) Note: Differences are in logs and are shown relative to a reference group of firm with zero total investment. Source: Haltiwanger, Jarmin and Schank 2003. DOES IT MATTER HOW IT IS USED? Businesses in the United States have used IT for fifty years. Originally, firms that used IT may have had advantage over competitors who did not. But today, simply investing in IT may no longer be enough. The question for economic performance is no longer whether IT is used, but how it is used. 68 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 Figure 5. 2. Computer Networks Were Common in U. S. Manufacturing Industries in 1999, But Sophisticated Network Software Was Not 100 90 80 70 60 Plants with Networks Employment at Plants with Networks Plants with Fully Integrated Enterprise Resource Planning Software Percent 50 40 30 20 10 0 G ts ts s s s s s o t es ry ts s al em ic d ru bb er pr od l ts ill re ts uc rie ou en al ill ts ts rie uc te pe uc cc ts N ne uc uc RI iti pm od ne ba tm od st pa uc uc et TU od od Pa la st od tiv hi od od du du pr re lla ac til uc pr to Ap pr ui – ac pr pr od m e FA C od in ce an Te x ar eq al od M W oo 32 al d an d im is al c d s 5 Ch pr in pr d – d d 2 pr y uc m uc ts d s r pr lie ni Fo er te od 31 U et te – n od M co an d – t, tio tro e Pr AN in la m al la 3 e go en go 33 til m re ra rta 31 – ec ed M m Te x le 31 ve nd 1 9 1 1 d lic el 33 e d re 32 Pl as tic s – – 3 – 32 po ra 33 ab an an bl AL nd qu ns ra ur he et br re g du ra le Tr a itu 31 m tin at D on Le ca te on rn 31 – in pu tri N 6 Fu 2 Pr N – Pe – tro Fa 2 le – 4 um Be al ic – ec 33 m 33 6 – – – 31 – Co El 7 3 4 32 4 33 33 5 33 – NAICS 3-Digit Industry Source: Atrostic, B. K. and J. Gates, 2001, â€Å"U. S. Productivity and Electronic Business Processes in Manufacturing,† CES-WP-01-11, Center for Economic Studies, U. S. Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC. New data from the 1999 Computer Network Use Supplement (CNUS) to the 1999 Annual Survey of Manufactures (ASM) are beginning to be used to model how manufacturing plants use computer networks in the United States. Respondents’ answers to questions about processes can be linked to the information the same respondents reported on regular ASM survey forms, such as the value of shipments, employment, and product class shipments. Figure 5. 2 presents researchers’ estimates of the diffusion of computer networks. The research finds that computer networks are widely diffused within manufacturing, with networks at about half of all plants. The share of employment at plants with networks is almost identical in durable and non-durable manufacturing. Use of networks varies a great deal within those sub-sectors; the share of plants with networks ranges from lows of about 30 percent to highs of about 70 percent. The CNUS also provides new information about some aspects of how plants use computer networks. Figure 5. 2 reports estimates of the diffusion of fully integrated enterprise resource planning software (FIERP); that is, the kind of software that links different kinds of applications (such as inventory, tracking, and payroll) within and across businesses. Plants in all manufacturing industries use this complex software. However, FEIRP software remains relatively rare compared to computer networks. While about half of all manufacturing plants have networks, fewer than 10 percent have this kind of software. 69 32 32 – 32 7 6 – an at ip L 5 – s DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 Initial research finds that computer networks have a positive and significant effect on plant’s labor productivity. After accounting for multiple factors of production and plant characteristics, productivity is about five percent higher in plants with networks. When economic characteristics in prior periods and investment in computers are also accounted for, there continues to be a positive and statistically significant relationship between computer networks and U. S. manufacturing plant productivity. 10 These initial findings for the United States are consistent with findings for other countries. Recent research for Canada, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, for example, all find positive relationships between using computer networks and productivity. 11 Research for Japan finds that computer expenditures and computer networks both affected productivity between 1990 and 2001. In more recent years, the effects are larger, but they also vary much more among industries. 12 Some micro data research for the United States during the 1990s suggests that IT needs to be used together with worker training and revised workplace practices to yield productivity gains. These findings are based on data containing detailed information about the use of computers in the workplace. They also contain information rarely available in other sources on the employers’ management and worker training policies. 3 Research for Australia and Canada, previously cited, also finds that returns to IT are intertwined with the use of RD, innovation, and changes in workplace practices and organization. This line of research suggests that IT is important, but that it makes its impact when accompanied by changes in other factors and practices. IS THE IMPACT OF IT THE SAME FOR ALL KINDS OF IT, EVERYWHERE? —EVIDENCE FROM STUDIES OF MARKET STRUCTURE IT was widely expected to alter t he structure of markets. The direction, however, was unclear. Lower information costs might make it easier for smaller businesses to collect, analyze, and use information and so allow them to enter distant markets or compete more effectively with larger firms. At the same time, the lower information costs might make it easier for larger businesses 9 Atrostic and Nguyen (2002). 10 Atrostic and Nguyen, â€Å"The Impact Of Computer Investment And Computer Network Use On Productivity,† paper presented NBER-CRIW Conference on â€Å"Hard-to-Measure Goods and Services: Essays in Memory of Zvi Griliches,† Washington, DC (September 2003). J. Baldwin, and D. Sabourin, â€Å"Impact of the Adoption of Advanced Information and Communication Technologies on Firm Performance in the Canadian Manufacturing Sector,† Research Paper Series, 174, Analytical Studies Branch, Statistics Canada (October 2001) present findings for Canada. E. Bartlesman, G. van Leeuwen, and H. R. Nieuwenhuijsen, â€Å"Advanced Manufacturing Technology and Firm Performance in the Netherlands,† Netherlands Official Statistics, Vol. 11 (Autumn 1996) present findings for the Netherlands. C. Criscuolo and K. Waldron, â€Å"e-Commerce use and firm productivity,† Economic Trends (November 2003) present findings for the United Kingdom. K. Motohashi, â€Å"Firm level analysis of information network use and productivity in Japan,† presented at the conference on Comparative Analysis of Enterprise (micro) Data, London (September 2003). S. Black, and L. Lynch, â€Å"How to Compete: The Impact of Workplace Practices and Information Technology on Productivity,† Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 83 No. 3 (August 2001); and D. Neumark and P. Cappelli, â€Å"Do ‘High Performance’ Work Practices Improve Establishment-Level Outcomes? † Industrial and Labor Relations Review (July 2001). 13 12 11 70 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 to retain a competitive advantage. Similarly, use of the Internet might make it easier for consumers to compare prices, and so lead to a reduction in prices for products sold on-line or in â€Å"bricks and mortar† establishments. At the same time, a firm building an on-line sales-based business may incur costs that brick and mortar businesses might not, such as cost associated with having inventories available for immediate delivery anywhere in the United States (or the world). The issues are scarcely settled. In this section, selected examples from micro data research illustrate IT’s multifaceted nature and complex economic effects. Trucking A series of studies make use of public-use truck-level data from the Census’ Vehicle Inventory and Use Surveys to examine how IT has affected the trucking industry. Each of these studies indicates the importance of knowing not just that IT is used, but also the details of the IT and how it is used. These studies examine the impact of two classes of on-board computers (OBCs). Standard OBCs function as trucks’ â€Å"black boxes,† recording how drivers operate the trucks. These enable dispatchers to verify how truck drivers drive. Advanced OBCs also contain capabilities that, among other things, allow dispatchers to determine where trucks are in real time and communicate schedule changes to drivers while drivers are out on the road. These advanced capabilities help dispatchers make and implement better scheduling decisions, and help them avoid situations where trucks and drivers are idle, awaiting their next haul. One of these studies assesses OBCs’ impact on productivity by estimating how much they have increased individual trucks’ utilization rate, as measured by their loaded miles during the time they are in service. 4 It finds that advanced OBCs have increased truck utilization by 13 percent among trucks that adopt them; overall, this effect implies a three percent increase in capacity utilization industry-wide, which translates to about $16 billion in annual benefits. The vast majority of this increase comes from trucks in the for-hire, long-haul segment of the industry, and most of these re turns only began to accrue years after trucking firms first began to adopt OBCs. In contrast, the study finds no evidence that standard OBCs have led to increased truck utilization. Combined, these results indicate not just the magnitude of IT’s impact on productivity in the industry but also its nature and timing. IT adoption has led to large productivity gains due to advanced OBCs’ real-time communication capabilities, which enable trucking firms to ensure that trucks operating far from their base are on the road and loaded. These gains, however, appear to have lagged adoption by several years. The other two studies examine how OBCs have affected how the industry is organized. One study investigates how OBCs affect whether shippers use internal fleets or for-hire carriers to ship goods. 5 This study finds that the different classes of OBCs have different effects on this T. Hubbard, 2003, â€Å"Information, Decisions, and Productivity: On-Board Computers and Capacity Utilization in Trucking,† American Economic Review, September. G. Baker and T. Hubbard, â€Å"Make Versus Buy in Trucking: Asset Ownership, Job Design, and Information,† American Economic Review, Vol. 93 No. 3 (June 2003). 15 14 71 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 decision. The diffusion of standard OBCs has tended to increase shippers’ use of internal fleets, but the diffusion of advanced OBCs has tended to increase their use of for-hire fleets. This implies that IT-enabled improvements in monitoring drivers have led shippers to integrate more into trucking, but IT-enabled improvements in scheduling capabilities have led to more contracting-out of trucking. This systematic difference indicates that whether IT tends to lead to larger, more integrated firms or to smaller, more focused firms depends critically on the new capabilities the IT provides. The second of the two organizational studies is similar: it investigates how OBCs have affected whether drivers own the trucks they operate. 6 Traditionally, â€Å"owner-operators† have been an important part of the industry. An advantage associated with owner-operators is that they have strong incentives to drive in ways that preserve their trucks’ value; these incentives have traditionally been far weaker for â€Å"company drivers,† who do not own their trucks. This study shows that OBC diffusion has diminished the use of owner-operators. By allowing firms to monitor how drivers drive, OBCs have eliminated an important incentive advantage of owneroperators, and have led trucking firms to subcontract fewer hauls out to such individuals. Residential Real Estate The Internet vastly increases the amount of information on housing vacancies that is readily available to consumers. Previous research had shown that high costs of information and lack of access to information limited housing searches. The best information available to consumers tended to be for properties near their current location. In addition, research found that information intermediaries such as real estate agents influenced the options that consumers considered. The increased information that the Internet makes available to consumers potentially reduces or eliminates those limits. Consumers can readily learn about properties far from their current locations, and can do so relatively directly (there still may be some influence exerted in how web sites are set up, for example, and consumers may not immediately, or ever, get to the best web site for their needs). Two recent studies use micro data to assess the effect of using the Internet to search for housing. In these cases, micro data from the public-use Current Population Survey provide basic information on what kinds of consumers use the Internet to search for housing. However, the CPS does not have information about the homes that Internet users purchased. To address questions about the kinds of homes purchased, the researchers surveyed a sample of recent home purchasers in a county in North Carolina. Characteristics of buyers who used the Internet as a source of information about housing vacancies were generally similar to those of buyers who only used conventional information sources, except that Internet users were younger. The researchers conclude that using the Internet to shop for housing does not seem to effect geographic search patterns, or to lead consumers to pay lower prices for comparable homes. Although using the Internet might be expected to decrease the number of homes buyers visited, because they would have more information about the houses and neighborhoods, the studies G. Baker and T. Hubbard, â€Å"Contractibility and Asset Ownership: On-Board Computers and governance in U. S. Trucking,† http://gsbwww. uchicago. edu/fac/thomas. hubbard/research/papers/paper_424. pdf (April 2003). 16 72 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 instead find that homebuyers who use the Internet as an information source make personal visits to more houses. 7 The Impact of IT on Wages Do â€Å"knowledge workers† receive wage premiums because they use computers? Does the use of IT increase the demand for more-educated workers? Does the growing use of computers by workers in some sectors of the economy explain shifts in the distribution of wages? Initial micro data research answered the first question with a resounding â€Å"yes. † One early study, for example, found that the pay of workers who used computers was 10 to 15 percent higher than the pay of similar workers who did not. 8 However, more recent studies that make use of more detailed information about workers and jobs over multiple periods find that the answer is more nuanced. IT potentially affects many aspects of the performance of businesses. It also may affect the wages, and other characteristics of jobs. Asking how IT affects wages is actually asking two questions. The first question is whether jobs where workers use computers pay higher wages. If the answer is yes, the second question is why. As with IT use in businesses, determining cause and effect of IT use on wages is hard. The jobs might pay higher wages because they require high skill levels. Some IT-using jobs, such as computer programmers and systems analysts, clearly require high skill levels, as do jobs such as architects who use computer-assisted design programs. However, computers appear throughout many workplaces. Workers may use computerized diagnostic equipment and programmable logic controllers, for example, in production applications. Office and service workers may use word processors and spreadsheets, e-mail, computerized billing systems, and so forth. Such jobs might pay higher wages if using a computer makes a worker with a given skill level more productive, but they generally do not require the workers to know much about principles of programming, or system or network design. Finally, the use of IT may allow computers to substitute for low-skilled workers performing repetitive tasks. Micro data studies in the United States, Europe, and Canada all find that workers using computers at work have much higher wages than workers who do not. The difference typically is on the order of 10 to 20 percent. However, these studies all used data from a single period, and many of them lack information about other aspects of the job, the worker, and the employer. This makes it hard to determine whether the workers have higher wages because they use a computer, or because important unobserved characteristics of the employer (is it highly productive regardless of the use of computers? ) or the worker (is the worker already highly skilled before using a computer? ) may affect managers’ decisions on investing in computers and R. Palm and M. Danis, â€Å"Residential Mobility: The Impacts of Web-Based Information on the Search Process and Spatial Housing Choice Patterns,† Urban Geography, Vol. 22, No. 7 (2001); and R. Palm and M. Danis, â€Å"The Internet and Home Purchase,† Journal of Economic and Social Geography, Vol. 93, No. 5 (2002). A. Krueger, â€Å"How Computers Have Changed the Wage Structure: Evidence from Microdata, 1984–1989,† Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 108 No. 1 (February 1993). 18 17 73 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 assigning them to which employees. A new study reviewing recent research on the impact of IT on employment, skills, and wages concludes that the story is complex. 9 Studies find that having information on plant characteristics and work practices matters. For example, a study finding that workers using computers in Germany had higher wages than workers who did not also found that a similar wage differential accrued to workers using telephones or pencils, or who worked sitting down. 20 The implication is that the wage differential really reflected the fact that workers using computers, telephones, or pencils, or who work sitting down, receive higher wages because they have higher skills. This research suggests that IT is associated with substantial wage differentials, but does not cause them. Studies for France and Canada find similar wage differentials. 21 Researchers using French and Canadian micro data also have matched sets of data on employers and workers in those countries, and have two or more years of data. Studies using these matched data all find that substantial cross-section returns to computer use fall sharply when they make use of information about changes in both the worker and employer characteristics. Estimates differ by country and study, but the final differentials are modest, 1 to 4 percent. 22 These studies also find that the relatively modest wage differential associated with computer use varies markedly across occupations and among workers with different levels of education. For example, a study for Canada finds that more highly educated workers, white-collar workers, and those adopting the computer for scientific applications receive higher than average wage premiums, while other workers do not receive wage premiums when they start using computers on the job. The reasons for such differences remain unresolved. It may be more costly to teach some groups of workers to use computers, or groups may differ in the proportion of computer training costs that they share with the employer (with lower employer shares resulting in higher wages). The researchers find that controlling for training increases the small or zero wage premiums they otherwise find for many low-skilled groups. They speculate that, if appropriate data were available to test for long-run effects, controlling for training and other worker characteristics might show positive wage differentials for most workers using computers. 3 Some detailed case studies (studies of specific businesses, usually anonymous) suggest another reason for differences in the wage differential associated with using computers at work. One M. Handel, â€Å"Implications of Information Technology for Employment, Skills, and Wages: A Review of Recent Research,† SRI International, SRI Project Number P10168, Final Report (July 2003). J. DiNardo and J. Pis chke, â€Å"The Returns to Computer Use Revisited: Have Pencils Changed the Wage Structure Too? † The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 112 No. 1 (February 1997). H. Entorf, M. Gollac, and F. Kramarz, â€Å"New Technologies, Wages, and Worker Selection. † Journal of Labor Economics (1999), and H. Entorf, and F. Kramarz, â€Å"Does Unmeasured Ability Explain the Higher Wages of New Technology Workers? † European Economic Review, Vol. 41 (1997); and C. Zoghi and S. Pabilonia, â€Å"Which Workers Gain from Computer Use? † Paper presented at NBER Summer Meetings (July 2003). 22 23 21 20 19 E. g. , Entorf and Kramarz 1997. C. Zoghi and S. Pabilonia 2003. 74 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 case study examined the effect of introducing computers into the operations of a financial organization. For some occupations, the case study found that computers substitute for the routine work that individuals previously performed, reducing the need for such workers. In other occupations, however, computers appear to take on routine tasks and free workers to perform more complex, higher skilled, problem-solving activities. 24 If IT also allows the business to alter the way it works and organize itself more productively, it may raise the skill requirements for all workers in the business, even if they do not directly use computers. Insights from the International Micro Data Initiative A wave of new literature in plant- or firm-level research on the effects of IT has been conducted in countries participating in the OECD. 25 (See box 5. 1. ) As with research using U. S. micro data, the micro data research conducted in other countries also find links between IT and productivity. Where information on computer networks is available, or other measures of how computers are used, the research again suggests that it is not just having IT, but how IT is used that effects economic performance measures such as productivity. Two kinds of studies are being undertaken. Some studies base their research on new data on IT for a single country. They make use of as much information as they can, and choose empirical techniques best suited to their data. Studies such as these contribute important insights, particularly when one country has information that other countries do not, or researchers are able to use techniques that help ensure that the measured effects indeed are due to IT. However, this strength also makes it hard to compare such estimates across countries. Studies from individual OECD countries find that IT has an impact on productivity and economic performance. Significant effects of IT on productivity are found in the service sector in Germany. 26 Recent research for France finds that one specific kind of network, the Internet, is associated with productivity gains, but other kinds of networks, which have been in use much longer, are not. 27 Canadian research finds that adopting IT is associated with growth in both productivity and market share. 8 Use of computers in Australia also is associated with productivity growth, with effects that vary across industries and are intertwined with other factors, such as the skill of a business’ work force, its organization and re-organization, and its innovativeness. 29 24 D. Autor, F. Levy and R. Murnane, â€Å"Upstairs, Downstairs: Computer-Skill Complementarity and Computer-Labor Substitution on Two Floors of a Large Bank,† Industrial Labor Relations Review 55(3) (2002). Resear ch to date is summarized in D. Pilat, ICT and Economic Growth: Evidence from OECD Countries, Industries, and Firms (Paris: OECD, 2003). T. Hempell, â€Å"What’s Spurious, What’s Real? Measuring the Productivity Impacts of ICT at the Firm-Level,† Discussion Paper 02-42, Centre for European Economic Research (Zentrum fur Europaische Wirtschaftsforschung GmbH; ZEW, 2002), ftp://ftp. zew. de/pub/zew-docs/dp/dp0242. pdf. B. Crepon, T. Heckel, and N. Riedinger, http://www. nber. org/CRIW/papers/crepon. pdf, Paper presented at â€Å"RD, Education, and Productivity,† NBER CRIW conference in honor of Zvi Griliches (Paris: August 2003). 8 29 27 26 25 J. Baldwin and D. Sabourin 2001. G. Gretton, J. Gali, and D. Parham, â€Å"Uptake and impacts of ICTs in the Australian economy,† paper presented at OECD, Paris, December 2002. 75 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 Another group of studies tries to use as many variables and analytical techniques as possible that are similar to those used by researchers in a few other countries. 30 This approach may exclude some variables and some analytical techniques, if researchers in several countries cannot use them. On the other hand, this kind of coordination makes it more likely that similar empirical findings are actually due to IT, and that differences in empirical findings are due to differences in economic conditions and other factors among countries. An example is a group of researchers conducting parallel analyses for the United States, Denmark, and Japan. 31 Preliminary findings are that IT is positively related to productivity in all three countries, but that the relationship depends on the type of IT used, the sector, and time period. Early results for Denmark show a significant correlation between several measures of the firm’s performance and use of the Internet, but not for other uses of IT. For Japan, productivity levels are consistently higher for firms using IT networks. However, growth in labor productivity varies by type of network and how the network is used, and the effect of Internet use is higher for retail trade firms than for manufacturing firms. For U. S. manufacturing plants, there is a strong relationship between use of computer networks and labor productivity. Better Micro Data Research Requires Better Micro Data Because the micro data are typically collected for other purposes, such as constructing key economic indicators, we almost always find that they lack some (often, much) of the information needed to address questions such those about the pervasiveness of IT and its effect. These gaps simply do not allow us to draw firm conclusions about the effect of IT. For example, research exploring the micro-level link between IT and economic performance may not always be able to separate the role of IT from other related but unobserved characteristics of the plant. Well-managed plants may use IT as one of many tools to achieve performance goals. If we have information about IT, but not about management practices, the research may attribute performance effects to IT that really are due to good management. Estimating plant-level relationships among computers, computer networks, and productivity also is hard to do with existing data because many of the most important concepts—what a business produces (output), and all the factors it uses to make its product (such as labor, capital, energy, etc. known as â€Å"inputs†), as well as IT itself—are difficult to define, and data based on these concepts are hard to collect. 32 Continuing research on these concepts leads to improve- For example, researchers in several countries are using the approach taken by U. S. researchers (Atrostic and Nguyen 2002), and using its findings as the benchmark against which they are comparing research findings using their own countries’ data. B . K. Atrostic, P. Boegh-Nielsen, K. Motohashi, and S. Nguyen, â€Å"Information Technology, Productivity, and Growth in Enterprises: Evidence from New International Micro Data,† L’acutalite economique (forthcoming 2004). A large literature lays out major data gaps in estimating the impact of information technology on economic performance. For example, conferences conducted by the NBER Conference on Research in Income and Wealth (CRIW) addressing capital and labor measurement over the last 20 years include D. Usher, The Measurement of Capital (NBER CRIW Volume 45 (Chicago University Press, 1980)); J. Triplett, The Measurement of Labor Cost (NBER CRIW Volume 48 (Chicago University Press, 1983)); and C. Corrado, J. Haltiwanger, and D. Sichel, Measuring Capital in the New 32 31 0 76 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 ments in what statistical agencies collect, but a dynamic and evolving economy continually presents new challenges. Even when concepts are well defined, it is costly for statistical agencies to collect data and for respondents to provide the requested information. As a result, some key information needed for analysis may not be collected often or at all. Examples include information such as the number of computers and computer networks that businesses have, how they use them, and how much businesses invest in computers and other IT. The divergent findings in the resulting empirical literature on the effects of IT are likely related to these data gaps, and to differences in the techniques researchers use to try to deal with them. 33 One way to improve the micro data available for research would be by better integrating aggregate economic indicators and their underlying micro data. It currently is not always easy to reconcile movements in the aggregate statistics with changes observed in the micro data. Aggregate indicators often are constructed from multiple micro data sources, and different sources of data for any concept (such as employment or payroll) may disagree. Collecting more of the data underlying aggregate statistics in ways that enrich their value as micro data, such as using common sampling frames and keeping information that allows linkage of same economic unit over time and across surveys, would improve both the micro data and our ability to understand changes in the aggregate economic indicators. Conclusion Micro data research conducted in the United States and in OECD countries shows that IT is related to economic performance and productivity. Careful research also shows that the relationships are complex. IT emerges as a multifaceted factor. The kind of IT that is used and how it is used appear to matter in many (but not all) settings, including the ownership structure of trucking markets, the relative dynamism of retailing, and the relative risk taking and innovativeness of manufacturing sectors across countries. At the same time, the use of IT alone does not appear to be enough to affect economic performance. When researchers have information about the characteristics of businesses, workers, jobs, and markets, they find that IT appears to work instead in tandem with those factors. Economy (NBER CRIW Volume 65 (Chicago University Press, forthcoming)). A series of meetings of international experts, known as the â€Å"Canberra Group,† addressed capital measurement issues during the late 1990s (http:// unstats. un. org/unsd/methods/citygroup/capitalstock. htm). An excellent manual describing how to calculate productivity devoted considerable text to issues in measuring capital can be found in P. Schreyer, Measuring Productivity: Measurement of Aggregate and Industry-Level Productivity Growth—OECD Manual (Paris: OECD 2001). Measuring intangible capital, potentially important in both IT and non-IT capital, received much attention recently (see for example B. Lev, Intangibles: Management, Measurement, and Reporting (Brookings Institution Press: 2001)). 33 See, for example, Dedrick et al. (2003); D. Pilat, 2003; B. K. Atrostic, J. Gates, and R. Jarmin, 2000, â€Å"Measuring the Electronic Economy: Current Status and Next Steps,† Working Paper CES-WP-00-10, Center for Economic Studies, U. S. Bureau of the Census, Washington DC; and J. Haltiwanger, and R. Jarmin (2000), â€Å"Measuring the Digital Economy,† in E. Byrnjolfsson and B. Kahin (eds. ), Understanding the Digital Economy (MIT Press 2000). 77 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 Separating out the effect of IT remains difficult because the analysis requires detailed information, and requires it for multiple periods. However, such detailed and repeated information is rare. Most business micro data contain only the information needed to calculate important economic indicators. The micro data are most sparse for the sectors outside manufacturing—the most IT-intensive sectors. More definitive research on the impact of IT requires that producing micro data sets becomes a statistical agency priority. 78 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 Appendix 5. A. Conducting Micro Data Research on the Impact of IT THE CENTER FOR ECONOMIC STUDIES, U. S. CENSUS BUREAU The Center for Economic Studies (CES) is a research unit of the Office of the Chief Economist, U. S. Bureau of the Census, established to encourage and support the analytic needs of researchers and decision makers throughout government, academia, and business. CES currently operates eight Research Data Centers (RDCs) throughout the United States. RDCs offer qualified researchers restricted access to confidential economic data collected by the Census Bureau in its surveys and censuses. CES and the RDCs conduct, facilitate, and support research using micro data to increase the utility and quality of Census Bureau data products. The best way for the Census Bureau to assess the quality of the data it collects, edits, and tabulates is for knowledgeable researchers to use micro records in rigorous analyses. Each micro record results from dozens of decisions about definitions, classifications, coding rocedures, processing rules, editing rules, disclosure rules, and so on. Analyses test the validity of all these decisions and uncover the data’s strengths and weaknesses. Research projects at CES and its RDCs are examining how facets of the electronic economy affect productivity, growth, business organization, and other aspects of business performance using both new data collected specifically to provide new information about IT , and existing data. Projects using existing Census Bureau micro data on businesses include McGuckin et al. 998; Dunne, Foster, Haltiwanger and Troske, 2000; Stolarick 1999; and Doms, Jarmin, and Klimek, 2002). Research making use of the new 1999 supplement to the Annual Survey of Manufactures linked to existing Census Bureau micro data include Atrostic and Gates 2001; Atrostic and Nguyen 2002; Haltiwanger, Jarmin, and Schank 2002; and Bartelsman et al. 2002. Research findings from many of these projects are discussed in this chapter. The research also helps the Census Bureau assess what current data collections can say about the electronic economy so that we can more efficiently allocate resources to any new measurement activities. More information about CES, RDCs, requirements for access to data, and examples of research produced at the RDCs is at http://www. ces. census. gov/ces. php/home. DATA SOURCES AT CES Researchers at CES and the RDCs built, and use, a longitudinal data set linking manufacturing plants over time. The data are based on surveys and economic censuses, and contain detailed data on shipments and factors used to produce them, such as materials and labor, as well as characteristics of the plant, such as whether it exports. Recent CES research broadens the range of available micro data beyond manufacturing. A new micro data set, the Longitudinal Business Database, currently contains the universe of all U. S. business establishments with paid employees from 1976 to present. It allows researchers to examine entry and exit, gross job flows, and changes in the structure of the U. S. economy. The LBD can be used alone or in conjunction with other Census Bureau surveys at the establishment 79 DIGITAL ECONOMY 2003 and firm level. In addition, micro data from surveys and censuses of the retail, wholesale, and some service sectors is now becoming available. The National Employer Survey, conducted by the Census Bureau for the National Center on the Educational Quality of the Workforce, collects detailed information about work practices, worker training, and the use of computers. Restricted access to confidential data from the survey is available to qualified researchers through the RDCs. Information about the National Employer Survey can be found at http://www. census. gov/econ/overview/mu2400. html. PUBLIC-USE DATA This chapter also refers to research conducted using two other sets of micro data collected by the Census Bureau. The Current Population Survey (CPS) is a survey of households that is collected by the Census Bureau for the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The CPS periodically collects information about people’s use of computers at work and at home. More information can be found at http://www. census. gov/population/www/socdemo/computer. html. The Truck Inventory and Use Surveys collect information about on-board trip computers and electronic vehicle management systems as part of the Census of Transportation. Information about the Census of Transportation can be found at http://www. census. gov/econ/www/tasmenu. html. 80 How to cite IT and Economic Performance: Evidence From Micro Studies, Papers